<p>Hollands Diep  is a wide river in the Netherlands and an estuary of the Rhine and Meuse river. Through the Scheldt-Rhine Canal it connects to the Scheldt river and Antwerp.</p><br>
<p>The Bergse Maas river and the Nieuwe Merwede river join near Lage Zwaluwe to form the Hollands Diep. The Dordtsche Kil connects to it near Moerdijk. Near Numansdorp it splits into the Haringvliet and the Volkerak.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Hollands Diep was formed as a result of the extensive flooding event of 1216, which breached the dunes of Voorne and created a deep saltwater inlet (the current Haringvliet). During a second flooding event, the St. Elizabeth floods, this inlet connected to the Merwede and became an important estuary of the Rhine and Meuse rivers. From that moment on, the freshwater part of the estuary (east of the Hellegatsplein) was renamed Hollands Diep. The former river Striene, that used to connect the Meuse with the Scheldt, was completely destroyed by these flooding events and can no longer be recognised on maps.</p><br>
<h2>River crossings</h2><br>
<p>At this point where the Hollands Diep splits, there is a road traffic node on an artificial island (the Hellegatsplein), connecting to the Hoeksche Waard island on the north by the Haringvliet bridge, to the Goeree-Overflakkee on the west by the Hellegatsdam, and to the mainland on the southeast by the Volkerak Sluices.</p><br>
<p>On the east side of the Hollands Diep the Moerdijk bridges connect the Dordrecht island on the north to the mainland on the south: a road bridge, a railroad bridge; a second railroad bridge has recently been constructed for the HSL-Zuid.</p><br>
<p>The Afgedamde Maas  is a former distributary of the Maas River  in the Dutch provinces of North Brabant and Gelderland. The Maas splits near Heusden with one channel flowing north until its confluence with the river Waal  to form the Merwede, while the other channel  continues west as the main distributary of the Maas.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The current Afgedamde Maas was created in the late Middle Ages, when a major flood made a connection between the Maas and the Merwede at the town of Woudrichem. From that moment on, the current Afgedamde Maas was the main branch of the river Maas. The former main branch eventually silted up and is today called the Oude Maasje. In the late 19th century and early 20th century the connection between the Maas and Rhine was closed off and the Maas was given a new, artificial mouth - the Bergse Maas. The resulting separation of the rivers Rhine and Maas reduced the risk of flooding and is considered to be the greatest achievement in Dutch hydraulic engineering before the completion of the Zuiderzee Works and Delta Works. The former main branch was, after the dam at its southern inlet was completed in 1904, renamed Afgedamde Maas and no longer receives water from the Maas.</p><br>
<h2>Transport</h2><br>
<p>There is a car ferry, not operating on Sundays, and a foot passenger ferry.</p><br>
<p>The Haringvliet is a large inlet of the North Sea, in the province of South Holland in the Netherlands. It is an important estuary of the Rhine-Meuse delta.</p><br>
<p>Near Numansdorp, the Hollands Diep splits into the Haringvliet and the Volkerak estuaries. It is closed off near Goedereede from the North Sea by the Haringvlietdam, which provides a road connection between the island of Voorne to the north and the island of Goeree-Overflakkee to the south. The dam with its sluices was built as part of the Delta Works sea barrier protection works.</p><br>
<p>The Haringvliet estuary contains the island of Tiengemeten, which is separated from the river island of Hoeksche Waard by the Vuile Gat strait.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Haringvliet was formed as a result of the extensive flooding event of 1216, which breached the dunes of Voorne and created a deep saltwater inlet. During a second flooding event, the St. Elizabeth floods of 1421, this inlet connected to the Merwede and became an important estuary of the Rhine and Meuse rivers.</p><br>
<p>It used to be ecologically rich, and its brackish waters, fed by both rivers and sea, supported an healthy population of seals. It also provided an access point for migrating fish like salmon and sturgeon. As a result of the North Sea flood of 1953 the Haringvliet was closed off by the Haringvlietdam. The Haringvliet lost its estuarine characteristics and became a freshwater lake. Because of that, the seals are gone and migrating fish can only enter the Rhine-Meuse Delta through the busy and heavy industrialised Nieuwe Waterweg.</p><br>
<p>There are plans to permanently open a few of the Haringvliet sluices, to partly restore the ecosystem.</p><br>
<p>The Bergse Maas  is a canal that was constructed in 1904 to be a branch of the Maas River  in the Dutch province of North Brabant. The Maas splits near Heusden into the Afgedamde Maas and the Bergse Maas. The Afgedamde Maas flows north until its confluence with the river Waal  to form the Merwede, while the Bergse Maas continues west as the main distributary of the Maas. Part of the Merwede  rejoins the Bergse Maas to from the Hollands Diep estuary.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Historically, a natural branch of the Maas flowed from Heusden to the Amer and Hollands Diep estuary; this branch silted up and now forms a stream called Oude Maasje. The Bergse Maas, which takes its name from the town of Geertruidenberg, was constructed in its basin to take over its functions, in 1904. The other main distributary of the Maas was at the same time dammed-up and renamed Afgedamde Maas ("Dammed-up Meuse"). The resulting separation of the rivers Rhine and Maas reduced the risk of flooding and is considered to be the greatest achievement in Dutch hydraulic engineering before the completion of the Zuiderzee Works and Delta Works.</p><br>
<h2>Transport</h2><br>
<p>There are two road bridges and three car ferries. The latter are free of charge, as promised to the people living in the area when the Bergse Maas was dug, but as of 2004, a fee of €1.00 is charged for cars. For pedestrians, the ferries remain free of charge.</p><br>
<p>Raasay  is an island between the Isle of Skye and the mainland of Scotland. It is separated from Skye by the Sound of Raasay and from Applecross by the Inner Sound. It is most famous for being the birthplace of the poet Sorley MacLean, an important figure in the Scottish literary renaissance.</p><br>
<p>Traditionally the home of Clan MacSween, the island was ruled by the MacLeods from the 15th to the 19th century. Subsequently, a series of private landlords held title to the island, which is now largely in public ownership. Raasay House, which was visited by James Boswell and Samuel Johnson in 1773, is now an outdoor activity centre. Raasay means "Isle of the Roe Deer" and is home to an endemic subspecies of bank vole. The current Chief of the Island is Roderick John Macleod of Raasay.</p><br>
<h2>Geology and geography</h2><br>
<p>About 14 mi north to south and 3 mi east to west (at its widest), Raasay&#39;s terrain is varied. The highest point at 443 metres (1,453 ft) is Dùn Caan, an unusual, flat-topped peak. The island of Rona lies just off the north coast and the tidal islets of Eilean Fladday and Eilean Tigh are to the northwest. Other smaller surrounding islands are Eilean Aird nan Gobhar, Eilean an Inbhire, Holoman Island, Manish Island, Fraoch Eilean, Glas Eilean, Griana-sgeir and Eilean an Fhraoich. The main village of Inverarish is near the southwest coast.</p><br>
<p>Geologically interesting, the island is visited by many students engaged in mapping projects. The south is mainly Torridonian sandstone and shale; the north is grey-banded Archaean Lewisian gneiss and granulite. There are also smaller outcrops of Jurassic shales and sandstones occasionally interspersed with limestone. The related ironstone beds contain low grade oolitic siderite and chamosite ores which were worked commercially in the early 20th century. Remaining reserves are estimated at 10 million tonnes. The seas to the east and west are very deep, large troughs having been created by the Skye icecap in the Pleistocene.</p><br>
<h2>Economy and culture</h2><br>
<p>The primary employment is in tourism, working for the ferry company, crofting and fishing, or commuting to work on Skye. A twenty-five-minute ride by the car and passenger ferry connects the island with Sconser on Skye. There is a primary school, but older students go to Portree by the ferry and bus.</p><br>
<p>Sites of interest include the remains of a broch, the ruins of Brochel Castle, inscribed stones, abandoned crofting communities, and many walking paths.</p><br>
<p>There is a shop/post office located in Inverarish. Accommodation is available in the old manor of Raasay House, and at various B&Bs. There are significant numbers of incomers and holiday homes especially in the south of the island. This has helped to arrest the population decline from over 900 in 1803 to 194 in 2001. Some inhabitants belong to the Free Presbyterian Church of Scotland, which strictly observes the Sabbath. On Sundays there are no public services, the playground is closed and, until 2004, the ferry did not run.</p><br>
<p>In early 2007 the Raasay Community Association signed a contract with a number of building contractors to construct a community centre, which hosted its first céilidh on 29 May 2010. In 2008 construction began on a new £12 million ferry terminal at Churchton Bay, which was officially opened on 17 August 2010. Following the community buyout of Raasay House a £3.5 million refurbishment was undertaken, leading to the temporary closure of the outdoor centre. However, in the early hours of 18 January 2009 the building was severely damaged by fire. Restoration work commenced in August 2010 but was suspended in November when the main contractor, ROK, went into administration. Work restarted with a new contractor, Mansell, in late 2011. Raasay House was officially handed over to the community in March 2013 and in addition to the 4 star accommodation it provides it is also now an outdoor activity centre with a restaurant, bar and cafe.</p><br>
<h2>Flora and fauna</h2><br>
<p>Raasay is home to the Raasay vole (Clethrionomys glareolus erica), a subspecies of bank vole, which is darker and heavier than the mainland variety and found nowhere else in the world. It is possibly a survivor of a Scandinavian race. Murray (1973) states that a single specimen of a pine marten, otherwise missing from the Hebrides, was found on the island in 1971. No other records for this species exist. Raasay is one of only four of the Inner Hebrides where mountain hares breed. Raasay is regularly visited by white-tailed sea eagles and golden eagles and there are populations of otter, red deer and European rabbit (which were introduced by the island&#39;s proprietor in the 19th century). Stoat and weasel are found in small numbers as are water shrew. It also supports a rich variety of plants, including red broomrape, dark red helleborine, mountain avens and numerous other saxifrages, orchids, alpines and ferns. The carline thistle (Carlina vulgaris) was apparently extant in the 1970s, but a recent survey found no evidence of its continued existence. There are several stands of mixed woodland.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The spread of Scots culture from Dalriada north of Ardnamurchan is poorly understood and little is recorded of Raasay&#39;s early Christian period. The placename Kilmaluag suggests the presence of St Moluag in the late sixth century.</p><br>
<p>Following Viking expeditions to the islands they called the Suðreyjar in the eighth century, Raasay became part of the Norse Kingdom of the Isles and for much of the period religious observance came under the jurisdiction of the Bishopric of the Isles. The Hebrides were yielded to the Kingdom of Scotland as a result of the 1266 Treaty of Perth, after which time control of the islands north of Ardnamurchan was in the hands of the Earls of Ross. In addition to the name "Raasay" itself, placenames such as Arnish (eagle headland), Suidhisnis (seething headland) and Eyre (beach or sand spit) are a legacy of the Norse presence.</p><br>
<h3>15th to 17th century</h3><br>
<p>Tradition has it that Clan MacSween originally held title to Raasay but there is no written record of this. It is known that the island was ruled by the MacLeods from 1518 when Calum Garbh, younger son of the MacLeod Chief of Lewis was granted title. Martin Martin visited towards the end of the 17th century and noted:</p><br>
<p>it has some wood on all the quarters of it, the whole is fitter for pasturage than cultivation, the ground being generally very unequal, but very well watered with rivulets and springs. There is a spring running down the face of a high rock on the east side of the isle; it petrifies into a white substance, of which very fine lime is made, and there is a great quantity of it. There is a quarry of good stone on the same side of the isle; there is abundance of caves on the west side, which serve to lodge several families, who for their convenience in grazing, fishing, &c., resort thither in the summer. On the west side, particularly near to the village Clachan, the shore abounds with smooth stones of different sizes, variegated all over. The same cattle, fowl, and fish are produced here that are found in the isle of Skye. There is a law observed by the natives that all their fishing lines must be of equal length, for the longest is always supposed to have best access to the fish, which would prove a disadvantage to such as might have shorter ones.</p><br>
<p>There are some forts in this isle, the highest is in the south end; it is a natural strength, and in form like the crown of a hat; it is called Dun-Cann, which the natives will needs have to be from one Canne, cousin to the king of Denmark. The other lies on the side, is an artificial fort, three stories high, and is called Castle Vreokle.</p><br>
<p>Brochel Castle, as it is more commonly known, was built by the MacSweens in the 15th century on the north-east coast of Raasay. Latterly, it became a base for the MacLeod of Lewiss pirating activities prior to Calum Garbhs investiture there. The castle was inhabited until the death by drowning of the Chief Iain Garbh in 1671 and is now a ruin sitting atop a pinnacle. In the meantime the Macleods moved their seat to Raasay House at the south end of the island.</p><br>
<h3>18th century</h3><br>
<p>Although Protestant, the MacLeods of Raasay supported Bonnie Prince Charlie in 1745. After the defeat at the Battle of Culloden, the Prince spent 2 days hiding from the British troops on Raasay and as a consequence of the island&#39;s support for the Jacobite cause the original Raasay House and many dwellings were burnt down by government troops. In conversation with Malcolm MacLeod of Raasay during his short stay on the island the Prince confided that although his life on the run was hard, he would rather live that way for ten years than be captured as he feared assassination. He seemed less aware of the risks his supporters ran. The atrocities perpetrated in the aftermath of Culloden were a shock to him. Of Cumberland he said: "Surely that man who calls himself a duke and pretends to be so great a general cannot be guilty of such cruelties. I cannot believe it."</p><br>
<p>In 1773 James Boswell and Samuel Johnson arrived on the island during their Hebridean tour. They visited Raasay House and Johnson wrote:</p><br>
<p>Our reception exceeded our expectations. We found nothing but civility, elegance, and plenty. After the usual refreshments, and the usual conversation, the evening came upon us. The carpet was then rolled off the floor; the musician was called, and the whole company was invited to dance, nor did ever fairies trip with greater alacrity. The general air of festivity, which predominated in this place, so far remote from all those regions which the mind has been used to contemplate as the mansions of pleasure, struck the imagination with a delightful surprise, analogous to that which is felt at an unexpected emersion from darkness into light.</p><br>
<p>When it was time to sup, the dance ceased, and six and thirty persons sat down to two tables in the same room. After supper the ladies sung Erse songs, to which I listened as an English audience to an Italian opera, delighted with the sound of words which I did not understand.</p><br>
<p>Boswell went exploring and described the island as follows:</p><br>
<p>Having resolved to explore the island of Rasay, which could be done only on foot, I last night obtained my fellow-traveller’s permission to leave him for a day, he being unable to take so hardy a walk. Old Mr Malcolm M’Cleod, who had obligingly promised to accompany me, was at my bedside between five and six. I sprang up immediately, and he and I, attended by two other gentlemen, traversed the country during the whole of this day. Though we had passed over not less than four-and-twenty miles of very rugged ground, and had a Highland dance on the top of Dùn Can, the highest mountain in the island, we returned in the evening not at all fatigued, and piqued ourselves at not being outdone at the nightly ball by our less active friends, who had remained at home.</p><br>
<p>My survey of Rasay did not furnish much which can interest my readers; I shall therefore put into as short a compass as I can, the observations upon it, which I find registered in my journal. It is about fifteen English miles long, and four broad. On the south side is the laird’s family seat, situated on a pleasing low spot. The old tower of three stories, mentioned by Martin, was taken down soon after 1746, and a modern house supplies its place. There are very good grass-fields and corn-lands about it, well dressed. I observed, however, hardly any inclosures, except a good garden plentifully stocked with vegetables, and strawberries, raspberries, currants, &c.</p><br>
<h3>19th and 20th centuries</h3><br>
<p>In 1843 the last laird, John Macleod, was deep in debt and chose to emigrate to Tasmania having sold Raasay for 35,000 guineas to George Rainy. After the failure of the potato harvests in the 1840s the new owner decided to convert as much arable land as possible to sheep farming. This required the removal of the islanders and his solution was to ban marriage. Several townships were cleared including Hallaig and Screapadal. Two boat loads of emigrants left for Australia in 1852 as a result and another 165 left for the same destination in 1865. The estate was then sold to Edward Wood and conflicts between the laird and the islanders grew as he decided to turn the island over to sporting purposes. On 20 September 1862 the steamship Irishman ran aground on "Skernataid Rock" between Raasay and Scalpay. A 9.2 m vessel Spindrift is also recorded as having become jammed under the ferry pier at the sound end of the island and broken in two by the rising tide at an unspecified date.</p><br>
<p>Near Oskaig, there is a row of six houses which are known as Manitoba. Locals believe that this was a gathering place for people about to embark on emigrating to Canada in the late 19th Century.</p><br>
<p>William Baird and Company signed a deed to purchase the estate of the Island of Raasay on 28 December 1910. The sale completed on 15 May 1911. The island was purchased by the government in 1922 after the mine closed. In 1949 The Forestry Commission was granted land bringing much-needed employment, and in 1956 The North of Scotland Hydro-Electric Board delivered mains electricity to the island. In the 1960s Raasay House and various other properties were purchased by Dr John Green, a resident of Sussex who visited the island only once and whose lack of interest in it earned him the sobriquet "Dr No". Having purchased the property for £8,000 he finally sold it to the Highlands and Islands Development Board in 1979 for £135,000.</p><br>
<p>Around this time, Manchester-born Alan Evans (who lived in Loanhead and worked for Ferranti, but owned several small properties around Raasay) set up Isle of Raasay Enterprises, a private initiative intended to encourage local enterprise such as the production of tourist postcards. Little progress was made before his death in 1967 but he is remembered by the Allan Evans Memorial Hostel (closed 2014) at Creachan, a remote cottage he had bequeathed to the SYHA.</p><br>
<h3>The Iron Mine</h3><br>
<p>Nicholson reported an early bloomery on the island. The next record of ironstone on Raasay was by HB Woodward in 1893. Stead investigated the outcrop in 1909 and the subsequent analysis by Tatlock convinced Baird&#39;s to buy the island the following year (with completion in 1912).</p><br>
<p>Bairds original plan was for a railway from the outcrop site down to just south of Suisnish point with the erection of five kilns. Objections led to the plan being revised for two kilns further south, where the current pier is. This pier was a public pier with landing charges regulated by government order. By the outbreak of war Bairds had completed the pier (constructed by Robert McAlpine & Sons), kilns, railway and "other works".</p><br>
<p>To house the workforce Baird&#39;s planned the village of Inverarish Houses, today known as Inverarish Terrace. The village consists of two facing rows of houses, each row being two terraces of 16 houses each. Between the terraces is a broad open area. Numbers 1—32 are the western row, 33—64 the eastern. The lower, southern terraces were built first (1—16 and 33—48) between 1912 and 1913. The first terraces were stone built and by 1914–15 were about half occupied. By the time of the 1915–16 valuation some of numbers 1-16 were unoccupied, just over half of numbers 33—48 were occupied and the newly built brick terrace of numbers 17—32 were also vacant. The unoccupied houses were caused by many of the labour force being called to the colours.</p><br>
<p>With the introduction of unrestricted submarine warfare in 1916 the Ministry of Munitions became concerned about the availability of foreign iron ore. Bairds were one company amongst others which opened up domestic mines in order to supply the war effort. In May 1916 Bairds signed an agreement to run the mine on behalf of the Ministry, although there was a minor skirmish over the amount of processing to be done on the island. The first prisoners were on the island by June and were housed in the upper part of the village, numbers 17—32 and the now completed 49—64. This northern part of the village was converted into a prisoner-of-war camp by the simple expedient of building a barbed wire fence around it and erecting sentry boxes and arc lamps at the corners.</p><br>
<h2>Population</h2><br>
<p>In 2001 Raasay had the lowest percentage of children of any populated Scottish island and the island&#39;s population fell by over 16% since that time to the date of the 2011 census During the same period Scottish island populations as a whole grew by 4% to 103,702. With 36% in the 2001 census there was still a relatively high density of Gaelic speakers (down from over 75% in 1901 and 1921).</p><br>
<h2>Culture and the arts</h2><br>
<h3>Piping tradition</h3><br>
<p>John McKay, born on Raasay in 1767, was supported by the MacLeod Chief as the foremost island piper of his day and an inheritor of the MacCrimmon tradition. His son Angus published a pibroch collection and was the first piper to Queen Victoria. The subsequent family members have emigrated from the island, and their direct descendent lives in Inveraray.</p><br>
<h3>Sorley MacLean</h3><br>
<p>The poet Sorley MacLean was born in Osgaig, a small crofting community on the west coast of the island; perhaps his most famous poem is about Hallaig, an abandoned community on the east coast. MacLeans writings often combine an ancient traditional awareness, with a modernist political outlook, in which Raasay, and the areas adjacent to it are frequently referenced. But while MacLeans work dwells on the brutality of war, of the Highland Clearances and modern exploitation, he also writes about nature. Thus, although the Clearances leave an empty landscape populated only by the ghosts of those evicted or forced to emigrate, "Time, the deer, is in the Wood of Hallaig".</p><br>
<p>MacLean lived much of his life off the island, but some of his time was spent in nearby Sleat on Skye and Plockton on the neighbouring mainland.</p><br>
<h3>Calum's Road</h3><br>
<p>The two miles (3 km) of road between Brochel Castle and Arnish were built using hand-tools by Calum MacLeod BEM over ten years. Only when complete was the road surfaced by the local council; by then Calum and his wife were the last inhabitants of Arnish. Calums Road has been commemorated in song by Capercaillie on their 1988 album The Blood is Strong and in a book by Roger Hutchinson. The BBC Radio 4 drama Calums Road, based on Hutchinson&#39;s book and dramatised by Colin MacDonald, was first broadcast on 5 October 2013 starring Ian McDiarmid as Calum MacLeod.</p><br>
<h3>Harrison Birtwistle</h3><br>
<p>The composer Sir Harrison Birtwistle lived on Raasay from 1975 to 1983. His Duets for Storab, takes its name from Storab, a Viking prince who was shipwrecked and sought refuge on Raasay. Birtwistle’s string quartet, The Tree of Strings, written in 2007, takes its title from a poem by Sorley MacLean.</p><br>
<p>The Santa Cruz Mountains, part of the Pacific Coast Ranges, are a mountain range in central and northern California, United States. They form a ridge along the San Francisco Peninsula, south of San Francisco, separating the Pacific Ocean from San Francisco Bay and the Santa Clara Valley, and continuing south to the central coast, bordering Monterey Bay and ending at the Salinas Valley. The range passes through San Mateo, Santa Clara and Santa Cruz counties, with the Pajaro River forming the southern boundary.</p><br>
<p>The northernmost portion of the Santa Cruz Mountains is known as Montara Mountain, north of Half Moon Bay Road (California State Route 92); the middle portion is known as the Sierra Morena, which includes a summit called Sierra Morena, and extends south to a gap at Lexington Reservoir; south of the gap the mountain range is known as the Sierra Azul.</p><br>
<p>The highest point in the range is Loma Prieta Peak 3,786 ft, near which is the epicenter of the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake. Other major peaks include Mount Umunhum 3,486 ft, Mount Bielawski 3,231 ft, El Sombroso 2,999 ft, Eagle Rock 2,488 ft, Black Mountain 2,800 ft, and Sierra Morena 2,417 ft. The San Andreas Fault runs along or near the ridge line throughout the range. The east side of the mountains drops abruptly towards this fault line especially near Woodside and Saratoga.</p><br>
<p>For much of the length of the range on the San Francisco Peninsula, State Route 35 runs along its ridge, and is known as "Skyline Boulevard". The major routes across the mountains are (from north to south) SR 92 from Half Moon Bay to San Mateo, SR 84 from San Gregorio to Redwood City, SR 9 from Santa Cruz to Saratoga, SR 17 from Santa Cruz to Los Gatos, SR 152 from Watsonville to Gilroy, SR 129 from Watsonville to San Juan Bautista, and US Highway 101 from Salinas to Gilroy.</p><br>
<p>The Santa Cruz Mountains have been a legally defined American Viticultural Area since 1981. Wine has been produced here since at least the 1840s. The Santa Cruz Mountain AVA has emerged as premier producer of top wines, recognized in the historic Judgment of Paris on May 26, 1976.</p><br>
<p>There are over 30 wineries located in this area.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The Santa Cruz Mountains are largely the result of compressive uplift caused by a leftward bend of the San Andreas Fault. The Salinian Block basement rocks are overlain by Miocene rock strata of the Lompico Sandstone, the Vaqueros Sandstone and the Santa Margarita Formation.</p><br>
<h2>Ecology</h2><br>
<p>The Santa Cruz Mountains are a region of great biological diversity, encompassing cool, moist coastal ecosystems as well as warm, dry chaparral. Much of the area in the Santa Cruz mountains is considered temperate rainforest.</p><br>
<p>In valleys and moist ocean-facing slopes some of the southernmost coast redwoods grow, along with coast Douglas-fir. coast live oak, Pacific madrone, Pacific wax myrtle, big leaf maple, California bay laurel, and California black oak also occur in the Santa Cruz Mountains. There do exist several small and isolated stands of old-growth forest, most notably at Henry Cowell Redwoods and Portola Redwoods State Parks and one sizeable old-growth redwood forest at Big Basin. At higher elevations and on sunny south slopes a more drought-resistant chaparral vegetation dominates: manzanita, California scrub oak, chamise, and chaparral pea. Spring wildflowers are also widespread throughout the range.</p><br>
<p>The area welcomes a tremendous number of species of birds. (see: bird list). Black-tailed deer, a subspecies of mule deer are common, as are western gray squirrels, chipmunks and raccoons. Periodic sightings of black bears indicate they frequent the mountains or wander north from Big Sur, where black bears are established. Foxes, coyotes, bobcats, cougars and human-introduced Virginia opossums also inhabit the region but are rarely seen. Rattlesnakes are also inhabitants, mostly in the high, dry chaparral.</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>The Santa Cruz Mountains have a Mediterranean type climate typical of most of California, with the majority of the annual precipitation falling between November and April. According to the National Weather Service, this totals more than 127 cm annually. Heavy summer fogs frequently cover the western ocean-facing slopes and valleys, resulting in drizzle and fog drip caused by condensation on the redwoods, pines, and other trees, which sustains the moisture-loving redwood forests. Due to a rain shadow effect, precipitation on the eastern side of the range is significantly less, about 64 cm a year. Snow falls a few times a year on the highest ridges, and more rarely the higher valleys receive light dustings.</p><br>
<p>The National Weather Service&#39;s cooperative weather stations in the mountains have included Black Mountain 2WSW – average annual rainfall 36.65 in, maximum annual rainfall 80.66 in, average annual snowfall 0.7 in, maximum annual snowfall 8.0 in; Los Gatos 5SW – average annual rainfall 26.45 in, maximum annual rainfall 103.23 in, average snowfall 2.7 in, maximum annual snowfall 9.0 in; and Wrights – average annual rainfall 46.09 in, maximum annual rainfall 87.65 in, average annual snowfall 1.2 in, maximum annual snowfall 10.6 in. No temperature records were kept at these stations.</p><br>
<p>The Santa Cruz Mountains are subject to sharp diurnal temperature fluctuations. The highs and low within a 24-hour period are ~20–30 °F apart on average but can be as much as 50 °F apart during heat waves depending on location. There is also considerable variation in temperature from day to day in both Summer and Winter with shifting wind directions, and fluctuations in the degree or marine influence.</p><br>
<p>Average winter highs range from the low 60s °F (~16–18 °C) in the coastal valleys to the upper 50s °F (~14–15 °C) in the valleys further inland. Average Winter overnight lows are a function of topology and can vary significantly, from an average low of 37 °F (~3 °C) in the valleys to ~42–44 °F (~6–7 °C) in the thermal belts above the inversion layer where cold air can readily drain off the slopes.</p><br>
<p>Thermal inversions occur primarily during the Winter when cool air sinks and gets trapped in the valleys at night, often leading to frost and occasional freezes. Higher elevations above the inversion layer usually stay mild with frost being a rare occurrence. The USDA has recently re-classified the hardiness zones for the higher elevations as USDA 10a to 10b to reflect the lack of frost at those locations. However, while the higher elevations are less prone to frost, they are also more likely to experience occasional snow accumulations. The valleys in contrast are rated USDA 9b with some locations as cold as 9a due to the lack of cold air drainage.</p><br>
<p>Summer temperatures regularly reach highs in the 80s °F (~28–30 °C) with nighttime usually in the upper 40s to lower 60s °F (~9–18 °C) depending on elevation, distance from the ocean and degree of marine inversion present. Summer weather is dominated by a persistent Marine layer that can vary in depth. When the inversion layer drops below 300–500 feet, the higher elevations are deprived of marine influence and will often be subject to intense heat waves with daytime temperatures in the 95-105F (~35–40 °C) range and extreme low humidity with elevated overnight lows that offer little relief from the heat. Such conditions can lead to fires that can occur even before the official State of California fire season starts in the Fall. Examples of such fires include the 2016 Loma Fire, the 2009 Lockheed Fire and the Summit Fire in 2008.</p><br>
<h2>Recreation</h2><br>
<p>The Santa Cruz Mountains are home to an abundance of parks and protected open spaces, notable among them is California&#39;s oldest state park: Big Basin Redwoods State Park. Other state parks include Castle Rock State Park, Portola Redwoods State Park, Butano State Park, The Forest of Nisene Marks State Park, McNee Ranch State Park and Henry Cowell Redwoods State Park with its famous Redwood Grove walking trail. Additional land is protected by the Midpeninsula Regional Open Space District, the Peninsula Open Space Trust (POST), the Sempervirens Fund and local county parks districts. Hiking, horse-riding, mountain biking, rock climbing, and backpacking are popular activities. There are two long-distance trails in the range: the Skyline-to-the-Sea Trail, which winds 38 miles (58 km) from Castle Rock State Park through Big Basin to the Pacific Ocean, and the Bay Area Ridge Trail, which, while still disjointed, here roughly parallels Skyline Boulevard along the spine of the range. There also exist several backcountry campsites in many of the state parks that enable long distance multi-day outings. Castle Rock State Park has open rock faces suitable for rock climbing and bouldering.</p><br>
<h2>Cultural history</h2><br>
<p>The previous historic Old Almaden Winery was located on the eastern slopes of the Santa Cruz Mountains. It was the first commercial winery in California, planting high quality European (French) varietal vines.</p><br>
<p>Film director Alfred Hitchcock and his wife Alma had their primary residence near Scotts Valley, the Cornwall Ranch, purchased in September 1940.</p><br>
<p>In 1965, science fiction author Robert A. Heinlein constructed a home in Bonny Doon, and lived there until shortly before his death in 1988.</p><br>
<p>Singer-songwriter Neil Young lived at Broken Arrow Ranch near Woodside with his family from 1970 to 2014. Many of his tracks from this time were recorded at the ranch.</p><br>
<p>Île Jésus  is an island in southwestern Quebec, separated from the mainland to the north by the Rivière des Mille Îles, and from the Island of Montreal to the south by the Rivière des Prairies.</p><br>
<p>The second-largest (242 km²) island in the Hochelaga Archipelago (after the Island of Montreal), Île Jésus is the major component of the City of Laval, along with the Îles Laval and several other islands. The island is still rural in nature, with most of the urban area in the central region and along the south and west river banks.</p><br>
<h2>Former cities</h2><br>
<p>*Auteuil</p><br>
<p>*Chomedey</p><br>
<p>*Duvernay</p><br>
<p>*Fabreville</p><br>
<p>*Îles Laval</p><br>
<p>*Laval-Ouest</p><br>
<p>*Laval-des-Rapides</p><br>
<p>*Laval-sur-le-Lac</p><br>
<p>*Pont-Viau</p><br>
<p>*Saint-François</p><br>
<p>*Saint-Vincent-de-Paul</p><br>
<p>*Sainte-Dorothée</p><br>
<p>*Sainte-Rose</p><br>
<p>*Vimont</p><br>
<p>The Mogao Caves, also known as the Thousand Buddha Grottoes, form a system of 492 temples 25 km southeast of the center of Dunhuang, an oasis strategically located at a religious and cultural crossroads on the Silk Road, in Gansu province, China. The caves may also be known as the Dunhuang Caves, however, this term is also used as a collective term to include other Buddhist cave sites in and around the Dunhuang area, the Western Thousand Buddha Caves, Eastern Thousand Buddha Caves, Yulin Caves, and Five Temple Caves. The caves contain some of the finest examples of Buddhist art spanning a period of 1,000 years.</p><br>
<p>The first caves were dug out in 366 AD as places of Buddhist meditation and worship. The Mogao Caves are the best known of the Chinese Buddhist grottoes and, along with Longmen Grottoes and Yungang Grottoes, are one of the three famous ancient Buddhist sculptural sites of China.</p><br>
<p>An important cache of documents was discovered in 1900 in the so-called "Library Cave," which had been walled-up in the 11th century. The contents of the library were subsequently dispersed around the world, and the largest collections are now found in Beijing, London, Paris and Berlin, and the International Dunhuang Project exists to coordinate and collect scholarly work on the Dunhuang manuscripts and other material. The caves themselves are now a popular tourist destination, with a number open for visiting.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Dunhuang was established as a frontier garrison outpost by the Han Dynasty Emperor Wudi to protect against the Xiongnu in 111 BC. It also became an important gateway to the West, a centre of commerce along the Silk Road, as well as a meeting place of various people and religions such as Buddhism.</p><br>
<p>The construction of the Mogao Caves near Dunhuang is generally taken to have begun sometime in the fourth century AD. According to a book written during the reign of Tang Empress Wu, Fokan Ji (佛龕記, An Account of Buddhist Shrines) by Li Junxiu (李君修), a Buddhist monk named Lè Zūn (樂尊, which may also be pronounced Yuezun) had a vision of a thousand Buddhas bathed in golden light at the site in 366 AD, inspiring him to build a cave here. The story is also found in other sources, such as in inscriptions on a stele in cave 332; an earlier date of 353 however was given in another document, Shazhou Tujing (沙州土鏡, Geography of Shazhou). He was later joined by a second monk Faliang (法良), and the site gradually grew, by the time of the Northern Liang a small community of monks had formed at the site. Members of the ruling family of Northern Wei and Northern Zhou constructed many caves here, and it flourished in the short-lived Sui Dynasty. By the Tang Dynasty, the number of caves had reached over a thousand.</p><br>
<p>The caves initially served only as a place of meditation for hermit monks, but developed to serve the monasteries that sprang up nearby in the early periods, and by the Sui and Tang dynasties, Mogao Caves had become a place of worship and pilgrimage for the public. From the 4th until the 14th century, caves were constructed by monks to serve as shrines with funds from donors. These caves were elaborately painted, the cave paintings and architecture serving as aids to meditation, as visual representations of the quest for enlightenment, as mnemonic devices, and as teaching tools to inform those illiterate about Buddhist beliefs and stories. The major caves were sponsored by patrons such as important clergy, local ruling elite, foreign dignitaries, as well as Chinese emperors. Other caves may have been funded by merchants, military officers, and other local people such as women&#39;s groups.</p><br>
<p>During the Tang Dynasty, Dunhuang became the main hub of commerce of the Silk Road and a major religious centre. A large number of the caves were constructed at Mogao during this era, including the two large statues of Buddha at the site, the largest one constructed in 695 following an edict a year earlier by Tang Empress Wu Zetian to build giant statues across the country. The site escaped the persecution of Buddhists ordered by Emperor Wuzong in 845 as it was then under Tibetan control. As a frontier town, Dunhuang had been occupied at various times by other non-Han Chinese people. After the Tang Dynasty, the site went into a gradual decline, and construction of new caves ceased entirely after the Yuan Dynasty. By then Islam had conquered much of Central Asia, and the Silk Road declined in importance when trading via sea-routes began to dominate Chinese trade with the outside world. During the Ming Dynasty, the Silk Road was finally officially abandoned, and Dunhuang slowly became depopulated and largely forgotten by the outside world. Most of the Mogao caves were abandoned; the site, however, was still a place of pilgrimage and was used as a place of worship by local people at the beginning of the twentieth century when there was renewed interest in the site.</p><br>
<h2>Discovery and revival</h2><br>
<p>During late nineteenth century and early twentieth century, Western explorers began to show interest in the ancient Silk Road and the lost cities of Central Asia, and those who passed through Dunhuang noted the murals, sculptures, and artifacts such as the Stele of Sulaiman at Mogao. The biggest discovery, however, came from a Chinese Taoist named Wang Yuanlu who appointed himself guardian of some of these temples around the turn of the century.</p><br>
<p>Some of the caves had by then been blocked by sand, and Wang set about clearing away the sand and made an attempt at repairing the site. In one such cave, on 25 June 1900, Wang discovered a walled up area behind one side of a corridor leading to a main cave. Behind the wall was a small cave stuffed with an enormous hoard of manuscripts. In the next few years, Wang took some manuscripts to show to various officials who expressed varying level of interest, but in 1904 Wang re-sealed the cave following an order by the governor of Gansu.</p><br>
<p>Words of Wang&#39;s discovery drew the attention of a joint British/Indian group led by Hungarian archaeologist Aurel Stein who was on an archaeological expedition in the area in 1907. Stein negotiated with Wang to allow him to remove a significant number of manuscripts as well as the finest paintings and textiles for a fee. He was followed by a French expedition under Paul Pelliot who acquired many thousands of items in 1908, and then by a Japanese expedition under Otani Kozui in 1911 and a Russian expedition under Sergei F. Oldenburg in 1914. A well-known scholar Luo Zhenyu edited some of the manuscripts Pelliot acquired into a volume which was then published in 1909 as "Manuscripts of the Dunhuang Caves" (敦煌石室遺書).</p><br>
<p>Stein and Pelliot provoked much interest in the West about the Dunhuang Caves; however, there was initially little interest in official circles in China. Concerned that the remaining manuscripts might be lost, Luo Zhenyu and others persuaded the Ministry of Education to recover the rest of the manuscripts to be sent to Peking (Beijing) in 1910. However, not all the remaining manuscripts were taken to Peking, and of those retrieved, some were then stolen. Some of the caves were damaged and vandalized by White Russian soldiers when they were used by the local authority in 1921 to house Russian soldiers fleeing the civil war following the Russian Revolution. In 1924, American explorer Langdon Warner removed a number of murals as well as a statue from some of the caves. In 1939 Kuomingtang soldiers stationed at Dunhuang caused some damage to the murals and statues at the site.</p><br>
<p>The situation improved in 1941 when, following a visit by Wu Zuoren to the site the previous year, the painter Zhang Daqian arrived at the caves with a small team of assistants and stayed for two and a half years to repair and copy the murals. He exhibited and published the copies of the murals in 1943, which helped to publicize and give much prominence to the art of Dunhuang within China. Historian Xiang Da then persuaded Yu Youren, a prominent member of the Kuomintang (Chinese Nationalist Party), to set up an institution, the Research Institute of Dunhuang Art (which later became the Dunhuang Academy), at Mogao in 1944 to look after the site and its contents. In 1956, the first Premier of the People&#39;s Republic of China, Zhou Enlai, took a personal interest in the caves and sanctioned a grant to repair and protect the site; and in 1961, the Mogao Caves were declared to be a specially protected historical monument by the State Council, and large-scale renovation work at Mogao began soon afterwards. The site escaped the widespread damage caused to many religious sites during the Cultural Revolution.</p><br>
<p>Today, the site is the subject of an ongoing archaeological project.</p><br>
<p>The Mogao Caves became one of the UNESCO World Heritage Sites in 1987. From 1988 to 1995 a further 248 caves were discovered to the North of the 487 caves known since the early 1900s.</p><br>
<h2>The Library Cave</h2><br>
<p>The cave no. 17 discovered by Wang Yuanlu came to be known as the Library Cave. It is sited off the entrance leading to cave no.16, and was originally used as a memorial cave for a local monk Hongbian on his death in 862. Hongbian, from a wealthy Wu family, was responsible for the construction of cave 16, and the Library Cave may have been used as his retreat in his lifetime. The cave originally contained his statue which was moved to another cave when it was used to keep manuscripts, some of which bear Hongbian&#39;s seal. Large number of documents dating from 406 to 1002 were found in the cave, heaped up in closely packed layers of bundles of scrolls. In addition to the 1,100 bundles of scrolls, there were also over 15,000 paper books. The Library Cave also contained textiles such as banners, numerous damaged figurines of Buddhas, and other Buddhist paraphernalia. According to Stein who was the first to describe the cave in its original state:</p><br>
<p>The Library Cave was walled off sometime early in the 11th century. A number of theories have been proposed as the reason for sealing the caves. Stein first proposed that the cave had become a waste repository for venerable, damaged and used manuscripts and hallowed paraphernalia and then sealed perhaps when the place came under threat. Following this interpretation some suggested that the handwritten manuscripts of the Tripitaka became obsolete when printing became widespread, the older manuscripts were therefore stored away. Another suggestion is that the cave was simply used as a book storehouse for documents which accumulated over a century and a half, then sealed up when it became full.</p><br>
<p>Others, such as Pelliot, suggested an alternative scenario, that the monks hurriedly hid the documents in advance of an attack by invaders, perhaps when Xi Xia invaded in 1035. This theory was proposed in light of the absence of documents from Xi Xia and the disordered state in which Pelliot found the room (perhaps a misinterpretation because unbeknownst to him the room was disturbed by Stein months before). Another theory posits that the items were from a monastic library and hidden due to threats from Muslims who were moving eastward. This theory proposes that the monks of a nearby monastery heard about the fall of the Buddhist kingdom of Khotan to Karakhanids invaders from Kashgar in 1006 and the destruction it caused, so they sealed their library to avoid it being destroyed. The latest date recorded in the documents found in the cave is generally accepted to be 1002, and although other dates have been suggested, the cave was likely to have been sealed not long after that date.</p><br>
<h3>Dunhuang manuscripts</h3><br>
<p>The manuscripts from the Library Cave date from fifth century until early eleventh century when it was sealed. Up to 50,000 manuscripts may have been kept there, one of the greatest treasure troves of ancient documents found. While most of them are in Chinese, a large number of documents are in various other languages such as Tibetan, Uigur, Sanskrit, and Sogdian, including the then little-known Khotanese. They may be old hemp paper scrolls in Chinese and many other languages, Tibetan pothis, and paintings on hemp, silk or paper. The subject matter of the great majority of the scrolls is Buddhist in nature, but it also covers a diverse material. Along with the expected Buddhist canonical works are original commentaries, apocryphal works, workbooks, books of prayers, Confucian works, Taoist works, Nestorian Christian works, works from the Chinese government, administrative documents, anthologies, glossaries, dictionaries, and calligraphic exercises.</p><br>
<p>Many of the manuscripts were previously unknown or thought lost, and the manuscripts provide a unique insight into the religious and secular matters of Northern China as well as other Central Asian kingdoms from the early periods up to the Tang and early Song Dynasty. The manuscripts found in the Library Cave include the earliest dated printed book, the Diamond Sutra from 868, which was first translated from Sanskrit into Chinese in the fourth century. These scrolls also include manuscripts that ranged from the Nestorian Jesus Sutras to the Dunhuang Go Manual and ancient music scores, as well as the image of the Chinese astronomy Dunhuang map. These scrolls chronicle the development of Buddhism in China, record the political and cultural life of the time, and provide documentation of mundane secular matters that gives a rare glimpse into the lives of ordinary people of these eras.</p><br>
<p>The manuscripts were dispersed all over the world in the aftermath of the discovery. Steins acquisition was split between Britain and India because his expedition was funded by both countries. Stein had the first pick and he was able to collect around 7,000 complete manuscripts and 6,000 fragments for which he paid £130, although these include many duplicate copies of the Diamond and Lotus Sutras. Pelliot took almost 10,000 documents for the equivalent of £90, but, unlike Stein, Pelliot was a trained sinologist literate in Chinese, and he was allowed to examine the manuscripts freely, so he was able to pick a better selection of documents than Stein. Pelliot was interested in the more unusual and exotic of the Dunhuang manuscripts, such as those dealing with the administration and financing of the monastery and associated lay mens groups. Many of these manuscripts survived only because they formed a type of palimpsest whereby papers were reused and Buddhist texts were written on the opposite side of the paper. Hundreds more of the manuscripts were sold by Wang to Otani Kozui and Sergei Oldenburg. Efforts are now underway to reconstitute the Library Cave manuscripts digitally, and they are now available as part of International Dunhuang Project.</p><br>
<h2>Art</h2><br>
<p>The art of Dunhuang covers more than ten major genres, such as architecture, stucco sculpture, wall paintings, silk paintings, calligraphy, woodblock printing, embroidery, literature, music and dance, and popular entertainment.</p><br>
<h3>Architecture</h3><br>
<p>The caves are examples of rock-cut architecture, but unlike Longmen Grottoes and Yungang Grottoes, the local rock is a rather soft gravel conglomerate that is not suitable for either sculpture or elaborate architectural details. Many of the early caves were developed from earlier Buddhist rock-cut chaitya styles seen in places such as the Ajanta Caves in India, with a square-sectioned central column, with sculpture in niches, representing the stupa round which worshippers may circumambulate (parikrama) and gain blessings. Others are hall caves influenced by traditional Chinese and Buddhist temple architecture. These caves may have a truncated pyramidal ceiling sometimes painted to resemble a tent, or they may have a flat or gabled ceiling that imitates traditional buildings. Some of the caves used for meditation are adaptations of the Indian vihara (monastery) cave plan and contain side-chambers just large enough for one person to sit in.</p><br>
<p>Many of the caves originally had wooden porches or fore-temples built out from the cliff, but most of these have decayed or been lost in other ways, with only five remaining, the two earliest of which are rare surviving examples of Song dynasty wooden architecture. The most prominent wooden building at the site, first built during the Tang dynasty, housed a large Buddha and was originally 4 storeys high, but it has been repaired at least 5 times and is no longer the original structure. A storey was added between 874-885, then repaired in the Guiyijun period, and two further storeys were added during a restoration in 1898. Two further restorations were carried out in the 20th century, and the building is now a 9-storey structure.</p><br>
<h3>Murals</h3><br>
<p>The murals in the caves date from a period of over a thousand years, from the 5th to the 14th century, and many earlier ones were repainted at later points within the period. The murals are extensive, covering an area of 490,000 ft2. The most fully painted caves have paintings all over the walls and ceilings, with geometrical or plant decoration filling the spaces not taken by figurative images, which are above all of the Buddha. Sculpture is also brightly painted. The murals are valued for the scale and richness of content as well as their artistry. Buddhist subjects are most common, however some have traditional mythical subjects and portraits of patrons. These murals document the changing styles of Buddhist art in China for nearly a thousand years. The artistry of the murals reached its apogee during the Tang period, and the quality of the work dropped after the tenth century.</p><br>
<p>Early murals showed a strong Indian and Central Asian influence in the painting techniques used, the composition and style of the paintings as well as costumes worn by the figures, but a distinct Dunhuang style began to emerge during Northern Wei Dynasty. Motifs of Chinese, Central Asian and Indian origin may be found in a single cave, and Chinese elements increased during the Western Wei period.</p><br>
<p>A common motif in many caves is the areas entirely covered by rows of small seated Buddha figures, after which this and other "Thousand Buddhas Caves" are named. These small Buddhas were drawn using stencils so that identical figures may be replicated. Flying apsaras, or celestial beings may be depicted in the ceiling or above the Buddhas, and figures of donors may be shown along the bottom of the walls. The paintings often depict jataka tales which are stories of the life of Buddha, or avadana which are parables of the doctrine of karma.</p><br>
<p>Bodhisattvas started appearing during the Northern Zhou period, with Avalokitesvara (Guanyin), which was originally male but acquired female characteristics later, the most popular. Most caves show Mahayana and Sravakayana (Theravada or Hinayana) influences, although Mahayana Buddhism became the dominant form during the Sui Dynasty. An innovation of the Sui-Tang period is the visual representation of the sutra &ndash; Mahayana Buddhist teachings transformed into large complete and detailed narrative paintings. One of the central features of Tang art in Mogao is the representation of the paradise of the Pure Land, indicating the increasing popularity of this school of Mahayana Buddhism in the Tang era. The iconography of Tantric Buddhism, such as the eleven-headed or thousand-armed Avalokitesvara, also started to appear in Mogao wall paintings during the Tang period – it became popular during the Tibetan occupation of Dunhuang and the subsequent periods, especially during the Yuan dynasty.</p><br>
<p>While Buddhist art is stylistically distinct from secular art, the style of paintings in the caves often reflects that of contemporary secular painting (insofar as we know of this), especially those depicting secular scenes. Donor figures are generally depicted in secular style, and may include secular events associated with them. For example, scenes depicting General Zhang Yichao, who ruled over Dunhuang in a quasi-autonomous manner during the Late Tang period, include a commemoration of his victory over the Tibetans in 848. The portraits of donors increased in size during the period ruled by the Cao family who succeeded the Zhang family. The Caos formed alliances with the Uyghurs (Uyghur Gansu Kingdom and Kingdom of Qocho) and the Saka Kingdom of Khotan and their portraits are featured prominently in some of the caves.</p><br>
<p>Many of the figures have darkened due to oxidation of the lead-based pigments from exposure to air and light. Many early figures in the murals in Dunhuang also used painting techniques originated from India where shading was applied to achieve a 3-dimensional or chiaroscuro effect. However, the darkening of the paint used in shading over time resulted in heavy outlines which is not what the painters had originally intended. This shading technique is unique to Dunhuang in East Asia at this period as such shading on human faces was generally not done in Chinese paintings until much later when there were influences from European paintings. Another difference from traditional Chinese painting is the presence of figures that are semi-nude, occasionally fully nude, as figures are generally fully clothed in Chinese paintings. Many of the murals have been repaired or plastered over and repainted over the centuries, and older murals may be seen where sections of later paintings had been removed.</p><br>
<h3>Sculptures</h3><br>
<p>There are around 2,400 surviving clay sculptures at Mogao. These were first constructed on a wooden frame, padded with reed, then modelled in clay stucco, and finished with paint. The giant statues however have a stone core. The Buddha is generally shown as the central statue, often attended by boddhisattvas, heavenly kings, devas, and apsaras, along with yaksas and other mythical creatures.</p><br>
<p>The early figures are relatively simple and mainly of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas. The Buddhas of Northern Wei may have two attendant Bodhisattvas, and two further disciples were added in Northern Zhou, forming a group of five. Figures from the Sui and Tang periods may be present as larger groups of seven or nine, and some showed large-scale parinirvana scene with groups of mourners. The early sculptures were based on Indian and Central Asian prototypes, with some in the Greco-Indian style of Gandhara. Over time the sculptures showed more Chinese elements and became gradually sinicized.</p><br>
<p>The two giant statues represent Maitreya Buddha. The earlier and larger one in cave 96, at 35.5 m high, was constructed in 695 under the edicts from Empress Wu Zetian who instructed the constructions of monasteries in 689 and giant statues in 694. The smaller one is 27 m tall and was constructed in 713-41. The larger northern giant Buddha was damaged in an earthquake and had been repaired and restored multiple times, consequently its clothing, colour and gestures had been changed and only the head retains its original Early Tang appearance. The southern statue however is largely in its original form apart for its right hand. The larger Buddha is housed in a prominent wooden 9-storey structure.</p><br>
<p>One type of caves constructed during the Tibetan era is the Nirvana Cave, which features a large reclining Buddha that covers the entire length of the hall. Figures of mourners in murals or in sculptural forms are also depicted along the length of the hall behind the Buddha. The Buddha figure in cave 158 measures 15.6 m long.</p><br>
<p>The original function of the "Library Cave" was as a shrine commemorating Hong Bian, the 9th-century monk. His portrait statue, unusual here and among all surviving works in China, was removed to another spot when the cave was sealed up in the 11th century, but has been returned now the library has been removed. There is also a stone stele describing his life, and the wall behind the statue is painted with attendant figure; such blending of painted sculpture and wall paintings into a single composition is very common at the site.</p><br>
<h3>Paintings on silk and paper</h3><br>
<p>Before the discovery in the Library Cave, original paintings on silk and paper from the Tang dynasty, a formative period in Chinese art, were very rare, and most of the surviving examples were copies made in later periods. Over a thousand paintings on silk, banners, and embroideries were found in the Library Cave, none apparently dating before the late 7th century. The great majority of the paintings are anonymous, but many are of high quality, especially from the Tang. Most are sutra paintings, images of Buddha, and narrative paintings. The paintings show something of the contemporary Chinese style of the capital Chang&#39;an, but many also reflect Indian, Tibetan and Uighur painting styles.</p><br>
<p>There are brush paintings in ink alone, some in just two colours, as well as many in full colour. Most common are single figures, and most paintings were probably donated by an individual, who is often portrayed on a diminutive scale. The donor figures become notably more elaborate in dress by the 10th century.</p><br>
<h3>Printed images</h3><br>
<p>The Library Cave is equally important as a source of rare early images and texts produced by woodblock printing, including the famous Diamond Sutra, the earliest printed book to survive. Other printed images were made to be hung, often with text below containing prayers and sometimes a dedication by the pious commissioner; at least two prints were commissioned by Cao Yuanzhong, Imperial Commissioner at Dunhuang in 947. Many of the images have colour added by hand to the printed outline. Several sheets contain repeated impressions of the same block with a Buddha image. Possibly these reflect stock for cutting when sold to pilgrims, but inscriptions in some examples show these were also printed out at different times by an individual as a devotion to acquire merit. It is unclear whether such people owned their own blocks, or visited a monastery to have the images printed.</p><br>
<h3>Textiles</h3><br>
<p>The textiles found in the Library Cave include silk banners, altar hangings, wrappings for manuscripts, and monks&#39; apparel (kāṣāya). The monks normally used fabrics consisting of a patchwork of different scraps of cloth as a sign of humility; these therefore provide valuable insights into the various type of silk cloth and embroidery available at the time. Silk banners were used to adorn the cliff-face at the caves during festivals, and these are painted and may be embroidered. Valances used to decorate altars and temples had a horizontal strip at the top, from which hung streamers made from strips of different cloths ending in a V that look like a modern male necktie.</p><br>
<h2>Caves</h2><br>
<p>The caves were cut into the side of a cliff which is close to two kilometers long. At its height, during the Tang Dynasty, there were more than a thousands caves, but over time many of the caves were lost, including the earliest caves. 735 caves currently exist in Mogao; the best-known ones are the 487 caves located in the southern section of the cliff which are places of pilgrimage and worship. 248 caves have also been found to the north which were living quarters, meditation chambers, and burial sites for the monks. The caves at the southern section are decorated, while those at the northern section are mostly plain.</p><br>
<p>The caves are clustered together according to their era, with new caves from a new dynasty being constructed in different part of the cliff. From the murals, sculptures, and other objects found in the caves, the dates of around five hundred caves have been determined. Following is a list of the caves by era, compiled in the 1980s (more have been identified since):</p><br>
<p>Sixteen Kingdoms (366-439) - 7 caves, the oldest dated to Northern Liang period.</p><br>
<p>Northern Wei (439-534) and Western Wei (535-556) - 10 from each phase</p><br>
<p>Northern Zhou (557-580) - 15 caves</p><br>
<p>Sui Dynasty (581-618) - 70 caves</p><br>
<p>Early Tang (618- 704) - 44 caves</p><br>
<p>High Tang (705-780) - 80 caves</p><br>
<p>Middle Tang (781-847) - 44 caves (This era in Dunhuang is also known as the Tibetan period because Dunhuang was then under Tibetan occupation.)</p><br>
<p>Late Tang (848-906) - 60 caves (This and the subsequent periods until the Western Xia period are also known collectively as the Guiyijun period (歸義軍, Return to Righteousness Army, 848-1036) when Dunhuang was ruled by the Zhang and Cao families.)</p><br>
<p>The Five Dynasty (907-960) - 32 caves</p><br>
<p>Song Dynasty (960-1035)- 43 caves</p><br>
<p>Western Xia (1036–1226) - 82 caves</p><br>
<p>Yuan Dynasty (1227–1368) - 10 caves</p><br>
<p>Mount Mitchell is the highest peak of the Appalachian Mountains and the highest peak in mainland eastern North America. It is located near Burnsville in Yancey County, North Carolina, in the Black Mountain subrange of the Appalachians, and about 19 mi northeast of Asheville. It is protected by Mount Mitchell State Park and surrounded by the Pisgah National Forest. Mount Mitchell&#39;s elevation is 6,684 ft above sea level.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The peak is the highest mountain in the United States east of the Mississippi River, and the highest in all of eastern North America south of the Arctic Cordillera. The nearest higher peaks are in the Black Hills of South Dakota and the highland foothills of Colorado.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The mountain, previously known as Black Dome for its rounded shape, was named after Elisha Mitchell, a professor at the University of North Carolina, who first explored the Black Mountain region in 1835, and determined that the height of the range exceeded by several hundred feet that of Mount Washington in New Hampshire, commonly thought at the time to be the highest point east of the Rocky Mountains. Mitchell fell to his death at nearby Mitchell Falls in 1857, having returned to verify his earlier measurements.</p><br>
<p>A 4.6 mile road (NC 128) connects the scenic Blue Ridge Parkway to a parking lot where a steep paved 980 ft trail leads through a conifer forest to the summit. The 40 ft stone observation tower on the summit was torn down in late 2006. A new observation deck was constructed and opened to visitors in January 2009.</p><br>
<p>Also on the summit is the tomb of Dr. Mitchell.</p><br>
<p>Mount Mitchell was formed during the Precambrian when marine deposits were metamorphosed into gneiss and schist. These metasedimentary rocks were later uplifted during the Alleghenian orogeny. The soils are well drained, dark brown and stony with fine-earth material ranging in texture from sandy clay loam to loam or sandy loam; Burton and Craggey are the most common series around the summit.</p><br>
<h2>Environment</h2><br>
<p>The mountain&#39;s summit is coated in a dense stand of Southern Appalachian spruce-fir forest, which consists primarily of two evergreen species&mdash; the red spruce and the Fraser fir. Most of the mature Fraser firs, however, were killed off by the non-native Balsam woolly adelgid in the latter half of the 20th century. The high elevations also expose plant life to high levels of pollution, including acid precipitation in the form of rain, snow, and fog. These acids damage the red spruce trees in part by releasing natural metals from the soil like aluminum, and by leaching important minerals. To what extent this pollution harms the high-altitude ecosystem is debatable.</p><br>
<p>While the mountain is still mostly lush and green in the summer, many dead Fraser fir trunks can be seen due to these serious problems. Repairing the damage is a difficult issue, as the pollutants are often carried in from long distances. Sources can be local or hundreds of miles or kilometers away, requiring cooperation from as far away as the Midwest.</p><br>
<p>Wildflowers are abundant all summer long. Young fir and spruce trees do well in the subalpine climate, and their pine cones feed the birds along with wild blueberry and blackberry shrubs.</p><br>
<p>The second highest point in eastern North America, Mount Craig at 6,647 ft, is roughly a mile to the north of Mount Mitchell.</p><br>
<h3>Climate</h3><br>
<p>The summit area of Mount Mitchell is marked by a humid continental climate (Köppen Dfb) bordering extremely close to a subalpine climate (köppen climate classification Dfc), with mild summers and long, moderately cold winters, being more similar to southeastern Canada than the southeastern USA. The monthly daily average temperature ranges from 25.2 &deg;F in January to 59.1 &deg;F in July. The coldest temperature ever recorded in the state occurred there on January 21, 1985 when it fell to -34 &deg;F, during a severe cold spell that brought freezing temperatures as far south as Miami. It is also the coldest average reporting station in the state at 43.8 &deg;F (based on data collected from 1971 to 2000) which is well below any other station.</p><br>
<p>Unlike the lower elevations in the surrounding regions, heavy snows often fall from December to March, with 50 in accumulating in the Great Blizzard of 1993 and 66 in in the January 2016 blizzard. Snow flurries have been reported on the summit even in the summer months of June, July, and August. Due to the high elevation, precipitation is heavy and reliable year-round, averaging 74.7 in for the year, with no month receiving less than 5 in of average precipitation. The summit is often windy, with gusts that can blow up to 178 mph.</p><br>
<p>Denali  is the highest mountain peak in North America, with a summit elevation of 20,310 ft above sea level. With a topographic prominence of 20,156 ft and a topographic isolation of 4,629 mi, Denali is the third most prominent and third most isolated peak after Mount Everest and Aconcagua. Located in the Alaska Range in the interior of the USA state of Alaska, Denali is the centerpiece of Denali National Park and Preserve.</p><br>
<p>The Koyukon people who inhabit the area around the mountain have referred to the peak as "Denali" for centuries. In 1896, a gold prospector named it "Mount McKinley" in support of then-presidential candidate William McKinley; that name was the official name recognized by the United States government from 1917 until 2015. In August 2015, following the 1975 lead of the state of Alaska, the USA Department of the Interior announced the change of the official name of the mountain to Denali.</p><br>
<p>In 1903, James Wickersham recorded the first attempt at climbing Denali, which was unsuccessful. In 1906, Frederick Cook claimed the first ascent, which was later proven to be false. The first verifiable ascent to Denali&#39;s summit was achieved on June 7, 1913, by climbers Hudson Stuck, Harry Karstens, Walter Harper, and Robert Tatum, who went by the South Summit. In 1951, Bradford Washburn pioneered the West Buttress route, considered to be the safest and easiest route, and therefore the most popular currently in use.</p><br>
<p>On September 2, 2015, the USA Geological Survey announced that the mountain is 20,310 ft high, not 20,320 ft, as measured in 1952 using photogrammetry.</p><br>
<h2>Geology and features</h2><br>
<p>Denali is a granitic pluton lifted by tectonic pressure from the subduction of the Pacific Plate beneath the North American Plate; at the same time, the sedimentary material above and around the mountain was stripped away by erosion. The forces that lifted Denali also cause many deep earthquakes in Alaska and the Aleutian Islands. The Pacific Plate is seismically active beneath Denali, a tectonic region that is known as the "McKinley cluster".</p><br>
<p>Denali has a summit elevation of 20,310 ft above sea level, making it the highest peak in North America and the northernmost mountain above 6,000 meters elevation in the world. Denali&#39;s base-to-peak height is little more than half the 33,500 ft of the volcano Mauna Kea, which lies mostly under water.</p><br>
<h3>Layout of the mountain</h3><br>
<p>Denali has two significant summits: the South Summit is the higher one, while the North Summit has an elevation of 19,470 ft The North Summit is sometimes counted as a separate peak (see e.g., fourteener) and sometimes not; it is rarely climbed, except by those doing routes on the north side of the massif.</p><br>
<p>Five large glaciers flow off the slopes of the mountain. The Peters Glacier lies on the northwest side of the massif, while the Muldrow Glacier falls from its northeast slopes. Just to the east of the Muldrow, and abutting the eastern side of the massif, is the Traleika Glacier. The Ruth Glacier lies to the southeast of the mountain, and the Kahiltna Glacier leads up to the southwest side of the mountain. With a length of 44 mi, the Kahiltna Glacier is the longest glacier in the Alaska Range.</p><br>
<h2>Naming</h2><br>
<p>The Koyukon Athabaskans who inhabit the area around the mountain have for centuries referred to the peak as Dinale or Denali. The name is based on a Koyukon word for "high" or "tall". During the Russian ownership of Alaska, the common name for the mountain was Bolshaya Gora (Большая Гора, bolshaya=Russian for big; gora=Russian for mountain), which is the Russian translation of Denali. It was briefly called Densmore&#39;s Mountain in the late 1880s and early 1890s after Frank Densmore, an Alaskan prospector who was the first European to reach the base of the mountain.</p><br>
<p>In 1896, a gold prospector named it McKinley as political support for then-presidential candidate William McKinley, who became president the following year. The United States formally recognized the name Mount McKinley after President Wilson signed the Mount McKinley National Park Act of February 26, 1917. In 1965, Lyndon B. Johnson declared the north and south peaks of the mountain the "Churchill Peaks", in honor of British statesman Winston Churchill. The Alaska Board of Geographic Names changed the name of the mountain to Denali in 1975, which was how it is called locally.</p><br>
<p>On August 30, 2015, just ahead of a presidential visit to Alaska, the Barack Obama administration announced the name Denali would be restored in line with the Alaska Geographic Boards designation. The renaming of the mountain received praise from Alaskas senior USA senator, Lisa Murkowski, who had previously introduced legislation to accomplish the name change, but it drew criticism from several Ohio politicians, such as Governor John Kasich, USA Senator Rob Portman, USA House Speaker John Boehner, and Representative Bob Gibbs, who described Obama&#39;s action as "constitutional overreach" because he said an act of Congress is required to rename the mountain; The Alaska Dispatch News reported that the Secretary of the Interior has authority under federal law to change geographic names when the Board of Geographic Names does not act on a naming request within a "reasonable" period of time. Jewell told the Alaska Dispatch News that "I think any of us would think that 40 years is an unreasonable amount of time."</p><br>
<p>Indigenous names for Denali can be found in seven different Alaskan languages. The names fall into two categories. To the south of the Alaska Range in the Denaina and Ahtna languages the mountain is known by names that are translated as "big mountain". To the north of the Alaska Range in the Lower Tanana, Koyukon, Upper Kuskokwim, Holikachuk, and Deg Xinag languages the mountain is known by names that are translated as "the high one", "the tall one" (Koyukon, Lower and Middle Tanana, Upper Kuskokwim, Deg Xinag, and Holikachuk), or "big mountain" (Ahtna and Denaina). Asked about the importance of the mountain and its name, Will Mayo, former president of the Tanana Chiefs Conference, an organization that represents 42 Athabaskan tribes in the Alaskan interior, said “It’s not one homogeneous belief structure around the mountain, but we all agree that we’re all deeply gratified by the acknowledgment of the importance of Denali to Alaska’s people."</p><br>
<p>The following table lists the Alaskan Athabascan names for Denali.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Koyukon Athabaskans, living in the Yukon, Tanana and Kuskokwim basins, were the first Native Americans with access to the flanks of the mountain. A British naval captain and explorer, George Vancouver, is the first European on record to have sighted Denali, when he noted "distant stupendous mountains" while surveying the Knik Arm of the Cook Inlet on May 6, 1794. The Russian explorer Lavrenty Zagoskin explored the Tanana and Kuskokwim rivers in 1843 and 1844, and was likely the first European to sight the mountain from the other side.</p><br>
<p>William Dickey, a New Hampshire-born resident of Seattle, Washington who had been digging for gold in the sands of the Susitna River, wrote, after his returning from Alaska, an account in the New York Sun that appeared on January 24, 1897. His report drew attention with the sentence "We have no doubt that this peak is the highest in North America, and estimate that it is over 20,000 ft high." Until then, Mount Logan in Canada&#39;s Yukon Territory was believed to be the continent’s highest point. Though later praised for his estimate, Dickey admitted that other prospector parties had also guessed the mountain to be over 20,000 ft.</p><br>
<p>On November 5, 2012, the United States Mint released a twenty-five cent piece depicting Denali National Park. It is the fifteenth of the America the Beautiful Quarters series. The reverse features a Dall sheep with the peak of Denali in the background.</p><br>
<h3>Climbing history</h3><br>
<p>The first recorded attempt to climb Denali was by Judge James Wickersham in 1903, via the Peters Glacier and the North Face, now known as the Wickersham Wall. Because of the route&#39;s history of avalanche danger, it was not successfully climbed until 1963.</p><br>
<p>Famed explorer Dr. Frederick Cook claimed the first ascent of the mountain in 1906. His claim was regarded with some suspicion from the start, but was also widely believed. It was later proved false, with some crucial evidence provided by Bradford Washburn when he was sketched on a lower peak.</p><br>
<p>In 1910, four area locals – Tom Lloyd, Peter Anderson, Billy Taylor, and Charles McGonagall – known as the Sourdough Expedition, attempted to climb Denali despite a lack of climbing experience. The group spent approximately three months on the mountain. Their purported summit ascent day included carrying a bag of doughnuts each, a thermos of hot chocolate, and a 14-foot (4.2 m) spruce pole. Two of them reached the North Summit, the lower of the two, and erected the pole near the top. According to the group, the time they took to reach the summit was a total of 18 hours. Until the first ascent in 1913, their claims were disbelieved, in part due to false claims they had climbed both summits.</p><br>
<p>In 1912, the Parker-Browne expedition nearly reached the summit, turning back within just a few hundred yards of it due to harsh weather. Hours after their ascent, the Great Earthquake of 1912 shattered the glacier they had ascended.</p><br>
<p>The first ascent of the main summit of Denali came on June 7, 1913, by a party led by Hudson Stuck and Harry Karstens. The first man to reach the summit was Walter Harper, an Alaska Native. Robert Tatum also made the summit. Using the mountain&#39;s contemporary name, Tatum later commented, "The view from the top of Mount McKinley is like looking out the windows of Heaven!" They ascended the Muldrow Glacier route pioneered by the earlier expeditions, which is still often climbed today. Stuck confirmed, via binoculars, the presence of a large pole near the North Summit; this report confirmed the Sourdough ascent, and today it is widely believed that the Sourdoughs did succeed on the North Summit. However, the pole was never seen before or since, so there is still some doubt. Stuck also discovered that the Parker-Browne party were only about 200 feet (61 m) of elevation short of the true summit when they turned back.</p><br>
<p>The mountain is regularly climbed today. In 2003, around 58% of climbers reached the top. But by 2003, the mountain had claimed the lives of nearly 100 mountaineers over time. The vast majority of climbers use the West Buttress Route, pioneered in 1951 by Bradford Washburn, after an extensive aerial photographic analysis of the mountain. Climbers typically take two to four weeks to ascend Denali. It is one of the Seven Summits; summiting all of them is a challenge for mountaineers.</p><br>
<h3>Timeline</h3><br>
<p>1896–1902: Surveys by Robert Muldrow, George Eldridge, Alfred Brooks.</p><br>
<p>1913: First ascent, by Hudson Stuck, Harry Karstens, Walter Harper, and Robert Tatum via the Muldrow Glacier route.</p><br>
<p>1932: Second ascent, by Alfred Lindley, Harry, Grant Pearson, Erling Strom. (Both peaks were climbed.)</p><br>
<p>1947: Barbara Washburn becomes the first woman to reach the summit while her husband Bradford Washburn becomes the first person to summit twice.</p><br>
<p>1951: First ascent of the West Buttress Route, led by Bradford Washburn.</p><br>
<p>1954: First ascent of the very long South Buttress Route by George Argus, Elton Thayer (died on descent), Morton Wood, and Les Viereck. Deteriorating conditions behind the team pushed them to make the first traverse of Denali. The Great Traleika Cirque, where they camped just below the summit, was renamed Thayer Basin, in honor of the fallen climber.</p><br>
<p>1959: First ascent of the West Rib, now a popular, mildly technical route to the summit.</p><br>
<p>1961: First ascent of the Cassin Ridge, named for Riccardo Cassin and the best-known technical route on the mountain. The first ascent team members are: Riccardo Cassin, Luigi Airoldi, Luigi Alippi, Giancarlo Canali, Romano Perego, and Annibale Zucchi.</p><br>
<p>1963: A team of six climbers (W. Blesser, P. Lev, R. Newcomb, A. Read, J. Williamson, F. Wright) made the first ascent of the East Buttress. The summit was attained via Thayer Basin and Karstens Ridge. See AAJ 1964.</p><br>
<p>1963: Two teams make first ascents of two different routes on the Wickersham Wall.</p><br>
<p>1967: First winter ascent, via the West Buttress, by Dave Johnston, Art Davidson and Ray Genet.</p><br>
<p>1967: Seven members of Joe Wilcox&#39;s twelve-man expedition perish, while stranded for ten days near the summit, in what has been described as the worst storm on record. Up to that time, this was the third worst disaster in mountaineering history in terms of lives lost. Before July 1967 only four men had ever perished on Denali.</p><br>
<p>1970: First solo ascent by Naomi Uemura.</p><br>
<p>1970: First ascent by an all-female team, led by Grace Hoeman and the later famous American high altitude mountaineer Arlene Blum together with Margaret Clark, Margaret Young, Faye Kerr and Dana Smith Isherwood.</p><br>
<p>1972: First descent on skis down the sheer southwest face, by Sylvain Saudan, "Skier of the Impossible".</p><br>
<p>1976: First solo ascent of the Cassin Ridge by Charlie Porter, a climb "ahead of its time".</p><br>
<p>1979: First ascent by dog team achieved by Susan Butcher, Ray Genet, Brian Okonek, Joe Redington, Sr., and Robert Stapleton.</p><br>
<p>1984: Uemura returns to make the first winter solo ascent, but dies after summitting. Tono Križo, František Korl and Blažej Adam from the Slovak Mountaineering Association climb a very direct route to the summit, now known as the Slovak Route, on the south face of the mountain, to the right of the Cassin Ridge.</p><br>
<p>1988: First successful winter solo ascent. Vern Tejas climbed the West Buttress alone in February and March, summitted successfully, and descended.</p><br>
<p>1997: First successful ascent up the West Fork of Traleika Glacier up to Karstens Ridge beneath Browne Tower. This path was named the "Butte Direct" by the two climbers Jim Wilson and Jim Blow.</p><br>
<p>2015: On June 24, a survey team led by Blaine Horner placed two global positioning receivers on the summit to determine the precise position and elevation of the summit. The summit snow depth was measured at 15 ft. The United States National Geodetic Survey later determined the summit elevation to be 20,310 ft.</p><br>
<h2>Weather station</h2><br>
<p>The Japan Alpine Club installed a meteorological station on a ridge near the summit of Denali at an altitude of 18,733 ft in 1990. In 1998, this weather station was donated to the International Arctic Research Center at the University of Alaska Fairbanks.</p><br>
<p>The weather station recorded a temperature of -75.5 &deg;F on December 1, 2003. On the previous day of November 30, 2003, a temperature of -74.4 &deg;F combined with a wind speed of 18.4 mph to produce a North American record windchill of -118.1 &deg;F.</p><br>
<p>Even in July, this weather station has recorded temperatures as low as -22.9 &deg;F and windchills as low as -59.2 &deg;F.</p><br>
<h3>Historical record</h3><br>
<p>The mountain is characterized by extremely cold weather. Temperatures as low as -75.5 &deg;F and wind chills as low as -118.1 &deg;F have been recorded by an automated weather station located at 18,733 ft. According to the National Park Service, in 1932 the -Lindley expedition recovered a self-recording minimum thermometer left near Browne&#39;s Tower, at about 15,000 ft, on Denali by the Stuck-Karstens party in 1913. The spirit thermometer was calibrated down to -95 &deg;F, and the lowest recorded temperature was below that point. Harry J. Lek took the thermometer back to Washington, D.C. where it was tested by the United States Weather Bureau and found to be accurate. The lowest temperature that it had recorded was found to be approximately -100 &deg;F. Another thermometer was placed at the 15,000 ft level by the USA Army Natick Laboratory, and was there from 1950 to 1969. The coldest temperature recorded during that period was also -100 &deg;F.</p><br>
<h2>Subpeaks and nearby mountains</h2><br>
<p>Besides the North Summit mentioned above, other features on the massif which are sometimes included as separate peaks are:</p><br>
<p>South Buttress, 15,885 ft; mean prominence: 335 ft</p><br>
<p>East Buttress high point, 14,730 ft; mean prominence: 380 ft</p><br>
<p>East Buttress, most topographically prominent point, 14,650 ft; mean prominence: 600 ft</p><br>
<p>Browne Tower, 14,530 ft; mean prominence: 75 ft</p><br>
<p>Nearby peaks include:</p><br>
<p>Mount Foraker</p><br>
<p>Mount Silverthrone</p><br>
<p>Mount Hunter</p><br>
<p>Mount Huntington</p><br>
<p>Mount Dickey</p><br>
<p>The Moose&#39;s Tooth</p><br>
<h2>Taxonomic honors</h2><br>
<p>denaliensis</p><br>
<p>Ceratozetella denaliensis (formerly Cyrtozetes denaliensis ) is a species of moss mite in the family Mycobatidae :sv:Ceratozetella denaliensis</p><br>
<p>Magnoavipes denaliensis (literally “bird with large feet found in Denali”) is a Magnoavipes ichnospecies of bird footprint from the Upper Cretaceous of Alaska and was a large heron-like bird (as larger than a sandhill crane) with three toes and toe pads. :pt:Magnoavipes denaliensis</p><br>
<p>denali</p><br>
<p>Cosberella denali is a springtail. :sv:Cosberella denali</p><br>
<p>Proclossiana aphirape denali is a Boloria butterfly species of the Heliconiinae subfamily of Nymphalidae.</p><br>
<p>Symplecta denali is a species of crane fly in the family Limoniidae. :sv:Symplecta denali</p><br>
<p>Tipula denali is a species of crane fly in the family Tipulidae. :sv:Tipula denali</p><br>
<p>denalii</p><br>
<p>Erigeron denalii or Denali fleabane is an Erigeron fleabane species.</p><br>
<p>Papaver denalii is an Papaver species and syn. of Papaver mcconnellii</p><br>
<p>mckinleyensis or mackinleyensis</p><br>
<p>Erebia mackinleyensis or Mt. McKinley alpine is a butterfly species of the Satyrinae subfamily of Nymphalidae.</p><br>
<p>Oeneis mackinleyensis or Oeneis mckinleyensis is a butterfly species of the Satyrinae subfamily of Nymphalidae (syn. of Oeneis bore)</p><br>
<p>Uredo mckinleyensis Cummins 1952 or Uredo mackinleyensis Cummins 1952 is a rust fungus species.</p><br>
<p>Hiiumaa  is the second largest island  in Estonia. It is in the Baltic Sea, north of the island of Saaremaa, part of the West Estonian archipelago. Its largest town is Kärdla. Along with several smaller neighboring islands, the island makes up Hiiu County; one of the 15 counties of Estonia.</p><br>
<p>The Hiiu Shoal (Nekmangrund) is located off the northwestern shore of Hiiumaa Island.</p><br>
<h2>Names</h2><br>
<p>Hiiumaa is the main island of Hiiu County, called Hiiumaa or Hiiu maakond in Estonian. The Swedish and German name of the island is Dagö ("Day" island), Dagø in Danish — a calque of its old Finnish name Päivänsalo ("Day" island); compare Ösel (Yösalo – night island) for Saaremaa. In modern Finnish, it is called Hiidenmaa, literally Hiisi&#39;s Land. In Old Gutnish, it was Dagaiþ (day isthmus), from which the local North Germanic name "Daë" is derived.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Archaeological evidence of the first human settlement in Hiiumaa dates to the 4th century BC. The first documented record of the island of Dageida was made by contemporary chroniclers in 1228, when Hiiumaa and the rest of Estonia were conquered by Germanic crusaders. In 1254, Hiiumaa was divided between the Bishopric of Ösel-Wiek and the Livonian branch of the Teutonic Order, acting partly on behalf of the Hanseatic League.</p><br>
<p>The island was part of Swedish Estonia from 1563 to 1721, after which it passed to the Russian Empire as part of the Governorate of Estonia, though Dagös Swedish population kept most of their privileges. Most of the islands previously numerous Swedish-speaking population emigrated or were "Estonianised" during the period of Imperial Russian rule, although a minority remains to this day. Estonian Swedes are also known as "aibofolke" (meaning island people in Swedish) or "rannarootslased" (meaning coastal Swedes in Estonian).</p><br>
<h3>World War I</h3><br>
<p>Hiiumaa was occupied during World War I by the Imperial German Army, in Operation Albion. After the war, it became a part of independent Estonia.</p><br>
<h3>World War II</h3><br>
<p>The waters near Hiiumaa were active during World War II:</p><br>
<p>23 June 1941- The Soviet destroyer Gnevny was sunk by a German seamine.</p><br>
<p>25 June- the Soviet minesweeper T-208 Shkiv was destroyed by a German seamine.</p><br>
<p>27 June- Two German motor torpedo boats, S43 and S106, were destroyed by Soviet seamines.</p><br>
<p>1 July- the Soviet submarine M-81 was destroyed by a German seamine north of Hiiumaa.</p><br>
<p>7 July- the Soviet minesweeper T-216 was sunk.</p><br>
<p>30 July- the Soviet minesweeper T-201 Zarjad was sunk.</p><br>
<p>10 August- the German submarine was sunk by a torpedo from the Soviet submarine SC-307.</p><br>
<p>Hiiumaa Island was annexed by the Soviet Union in 1940, by Nazi Germany in 1941, and by the Soviets again in 1944. It was part of the Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic until the Soviet Union collapsed in 1991. During the Soviet era, Hiiumaa was declared a restricted zone, closed to foreigners and to most mainland Estonians. Since 1991, the island has been a part of independent Estonia.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Hiiumaa is an island in Estonia located north of Saaremaa in the Baltic Sea. It is the northernmost island in the Muhu archipelago, which includes Saaremaa and Muhu. The Soela Strait separates Hiumaa from Saaremaa to its south, and the Muhu Strait separates it from the mainland of Estonia.</p><br>
<h2>Transport</h2><br>
<p>Road transport from Estonian mainland to Hiiumaa involves a 90-minute (28 km) ferry crossing from Rohuküla to Heltermaa, which is 25 km by road from Kärdla. There are about 10 ferry departures a day operated by TS Laevad. In the summer weekends, getting car space on the ferry usually requires advance booking. There are about 2 scheduled buses a day between Tallinn (the capital of Estonia) and Kärdla.</p><br>
<p>In the winter, the island can be reached, conditions permitting, via a 26.5 km ice road (the longest in Europe) across the frozen Baltic Sea.</p><br>
<p>Hiiumaa is served by Kärdla Airport, with regular flights to Tallinn. Bicycle rental is also available in Kärdla and there is a good bicycle path built from Kärdla towards Kõrgessaare.</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<h2>Cuisine</h2><br>
<p>Smoke cooked plaice is a traditional summer time delicacy.</p><br>
<h2>Notables</h2><br>
<p>Aleksander Maaker (1890-1968), the last traditional player of the torupill (Estonian bagpipe)</p><br>
<p>Juhan Maaker (1845-1930), Estonian folk musician</p><br>
<p>Lydia Mei (1896-1965), Estonian artist</p><br>
<p>Natalie Mei (1900-1975), Estonian artist</p><br>
<p>Erkki-Sven Tüür (b. 1959), Estonian composer of contemporary classical music.</p><br>
<p>Roman von Ungern-Sternberg (1885-1921), White military commander in the Russian Civil War.</p><br>
<h2>Image gallery</h2><br>
<p>Tahkuna tuletorn Hiiumaal, päikeseloojanguvalguses.jpgTahkuna lighthouse</p><br>
<p>Hellamaa panoraam.jpgCoast of Hiiumaa</p><br>
<p>Tubala tuulik august 2014.jpgTubala windmill</p><br>
<p>Hiiu-Suuremõisa mõisahoone.jpgSuuremõisa Manor in Suuremõisa, Pühalepa Parish</p><br>
<p>23623 Suuremõisa mõisa allee.jpgAvenue at Suuremõisa Park</p><br>
<p>Orjaku sadam-kohvik.JPGCafé at Orjaku Harbor</p><br>
<p>Kärdla, Hiiumaa Turismiinfokeskus.JPGHiiumaa tourist information center in Kärdla. The old fire station</p><br>
<p>The Ghent–Terneuzen Canal , also known as the "Sea Canal"  is a canal linking Ghent in Belgium to the port of Terneuzen on the Westerschelde  estuary in the Netherlands, thereby providing the former with better access to the sea.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The canal was constructed between 1823 and 1827 on the initiative of the Dutch King: Belgium (as it subsequently became) and the Netherlands had become a united country under the terms agreed at the Congress of Vienna. After Belgium broke away in 1830, traffic to and from Belgium was blocked by the Dutch until 1841.</p><br>
<p>Between 1870 and 1885 the canal was enlarged to a depth of six and a half meters at its centre, and to a width of 17 meters at its base and 68 meters at the surface level: bridges were rebuilt accordingly along the Belgian sector.</p><br>
<p>The famous Cluysen - Ter Donck Regatta was organised here for many decades (1888-1954)</p><br>
<p>and during the 1913 Expo of Ghent the European Rowing Championships took place on the canal.</p><br>
<p>Further development and major enlargement took place during the subsequent century, most notably during the early 1960s.</p><br>
<p>In February 2015 Flanders and the Netherlands signed a treaty for the construction of a new lock at Terneuzen, scheduled for completion in 2021 and costing €920M. The new lock is about the same size as those of the contemporaneous expansion project of the Panama Canal.</p><br>
<h2>Today</h2><br>
<p>Today the Ghent-Terneuzen canal is 200 meters wide and 32 km long, capable of accommodating ships of up to 125 000 gross tonnage. The largest permitted vessel size has increased, correspondingly, to 265 meters long x 34 meters wide, with a draft up to 12.5 meters.</p><br>
<p>Grevelingen or Grevelingenmeer  is a closed off part of the Rhine-Meuse estuary on the border of the Dutch provinces of South Holland and Zeeland.</p><br>
<p>It is situated between the islands of Goeree-Overflakkee (South Holland) and Schouwen-Duiveland (Zeeland) and was closed off as part of the Delta Works, a huge engineering project designed to protect the southwestern part of the Netherlands from flooding. The Brouwersdam, a dike connecting the two islands on the west, closes off the Grevelingen from the North Sea. The Grevelingendam, the dike on the east, blocks the inflow of Rhine and Meuse water.</p><br>
<p>Since its closure in 1971 the saltwater of the Grevelingen slowly started to become brackish due to rainwater and excess polderwater from the islands, but the Dutch changed their mind and decided that they wanted to preserve the saline biotope. Therefore, in 1978 a sluice was created under the Brouwersdam, restoring and maintaining the saline character of the Grevelingen. The Brouwerssluis is open all year round except during storm floods.</p><br>
<p>Connexxion bus service 104 crosses the Brouwersdam, bus service 133 (and others) the Grevelingendam.</p><br>
<p>The Grevelingenmeer is the largest saltwater lake in Europe and is a popular place for holidays and water sports.</p><br>
<h2>Trivia</h2><br>
<p>Professional freestyle windsurfer Steven Van Broeckhoven refers to the Grevelingenmeer as his homespot.</p><br>
<p>Lake Lucerne  is a lake in central Switzerland and the fourth largest in the country.</p><br>
<p>The lake has a complicated shape, with several sharp bends and four arms. It starts in the south-north bound Reuss Valley between steep cliffs above the Urnersee from Flüelen towards Brunnen to the north before it makes a sharp bend to the west where it continues into the Gersauer Becken. Here is also the deepest point of the lake with 214 m. Even more west of it is the Buochser Bucht, but the lake sharply turns north again through the narrow opening between the Unter Nas (lower nose) of the Bürgenstock to the west and the Ober Nas (upper nose) of the Rigi to the east to reach the Vitznauer Bucht. In front of Vitznau below the Rigi the lake turns sharply west again to reach the center of a four-arm cross, called the Chrütztrichter (Cross Funnel). Here converge the Vitznauer Bucht with the Küssnachtersee from the north, the Luzernersee from the west, and the Horwer Bucht and the Stanser Trichter to the south, which is to be found right below the northeast side of the Pilatus and the west side of the Bürgenstock. At the very narrow pass between the east dropper of the Pilatus (called Lopper) and Stansstad the lake reaches its southwestern arm at Alpnachstad on the steep southern foothills of the Pilatus, the Alpnachersee. The lake drains its water into the Reuss in Lucerne from its arm called Luzernersee (which literally translates as Lake of Lucerne).</p><br>
<p>The entire lake has a total area of 114 km² (44 sq mi) at an elevation of 434 m a.s.l., and a maximum depth of 214 m. Its volume is 11.8 km³. Much of the shoreline rises steeply into mountains up to 1,500 m above the lake, resulting in many picturesque views including those of the mountains Rigi and Pilatus.</p><br>
<p>The Reuss enters the lake at Flüelen, in the part called Urnersee (Lake of Uri, in the canton of Uri) and exits at Lucerne. The lake also receives the Muota at Brunnen, the Engelberger Aa at Buochs, and the Sarner Aa at Alpnachstad.</p><br>
<p>It is possible to circumnavigate the lake by train and road, though the railway route circumvents the lake even on the north side of the Rigi via Arth-Goldau. Since 1980, the A2 motorway leads through the Seelisberg Tunnel in order to reach the route to the Gotthard Pass in just half an hour in Altdorf, Uri right south of the beginning of the lake in Flüelen.</p><br>
<p>Steamers and other passenger boats ply between the different villages and towns on the lake. It is a popular tourist destination, both for native Swiss and foreigners, and there are many hotels and resorts along the shores. In addition, the meadow of the Rütli, traditional site of the founding of the Swiss Confederation, is on the Urnersee shore. A 35 km commemorative walkway, the Swiss Path, was built around the Lake of Uri to celebrate the country&#39;s 700th anniversary in 1991.</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<p>The older name of the lake is Luzerner See ("Lake of Lucerne").</p><br>
<p>The (three) "Waldstätte(n)" (lit.: "Forested Sites/Settlements") since the 14th century were the confederate allies of Uri, Schwyz and Unterwalden. The notion of "Four Waldstätten" (Vier Waldstätten), with the addition of the "town" of Lucerne, is first recorded in the 1450s, in an addition to the "Silver Book" of Egloff Etterlin of Lucerne. The name of Vierwaldstättersee is first used in the 16th century.</p><br>
<p>Each part of the lake has it own designation:</p><br>
<p>Urnersee ("Lake of Uri"): The first part of the lake, at the mouth of the Reuss between Flüelen and Brunnen.</p><br>
<p>Gersauer Becken ("Basin of Gersau"): In front of Gersau below the Rigi massif, the deepest part.</p><br>
<p>Buochser Bucht ("Bay of Buochs"): The bay of Bouchs, where the Engelberger Aa enters the lake.</p><br>
<p>Vitznauer Bucht ("Bay of Vitznau"): The part between the Bürgenstock and Rigi.</p><br>
<p>Küssnachtersee ("Lake of Küssnacht"): The most northern arm, west of the Rigi with Küssnacht SZ at its northern end.</p><br>
<p>Alpnachersee ("Lake of Alpnach"): the almost separate, southern arm below the southern mountainside of Pilatus near Alpnach.</p><br>
<p>Horwer Bucht ("Bay of Horw"): The bay in front of Horw.</p><br>
<p>Stanser Trichter ("Funnel of Stans"): The part north of the Pilatus, west of Bürgenstock, and in front of Hergiswil and Stansstad.</p><br>
<p>Chrütztrichter ("Cross Funnel"): The meeting point of Stanser Trichter, Luzernersee, Küssnachtersee, and Vitznauer Bucht.</p><br>
<p>Luzernersee ("Lake of Lucerne"): Only the bay in front of Luzern as far as Meggenhorn, with its effluence of the Reuss, is called "Lake of Lucerne" in original language German, not the whole lake.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Lake Lucerne borders on the three original Swiss cantons of Uri, Schwyz, and Unterwalden (which today is divided into the cantons of Obwalden and Nidwalden), as well as the canton of Lucerne, thus the name Vierwaldstättersee (lit.: Lake of the Four Forested Settlements). Many of the oldest communities of Switzerland are along the shore, including Küssnacht, Weggis, Vitznau, Gersau, Brunnen, Altdorf, Buochs, and Treib.</p><br>
<p>Lake Lucerne is singularly irregular and appears to lie in four different valleys, all related to the conformation of the adjoining mountains. The central portion of the lake lies in two parallel valleys whose direction is from west to east, the one lying north, the other south of the ridge of the Bürgenstock. These are connected through a narrow strait, scarcely one kilometre wide, between the two rocky promontories called respectively Unter Nas and Ober Nas (Lower and Upper Nose). It is not unlikely that the southern of these two divisions of the lake—called Buochser Bucht—formerly extended to the west over the isthmus whereon stands the town of Stans, thus forming an island of the Bürgenstock. The west end of the main branch of the lake, whence a comparatively shallow bay extends to the town of Lucerne, is intersected obliquely by a deep trench whose south-west end is occupied by the branch called Alpnachersee, while the north-east branch forms the long arm of Küssnacht, Küssnachtersee. These both lie in the direct line of a valley that stretches with scarcely a break in between the Uri Alps and the Emmental Alps. At the eastern end of the Gersauer Becken, where the containing walls of the lake-valley are directed from east to west, it is joined at an acute angle by the arm of Uri, or the Urnersee, lying in the northern prolongation of the deep cleft that gives a passage to the Reuss, between the Uri Alps and the Glarus Alps.</p><br>
<p>The Urnersee occupies the northernmost and deep portion of the great cleft of the Reuss Valley, which has cut through the Alpine ranges from the St Gotthard Pass to the neighbourhood of Schwyz. From its eastern shore the mountains rise in almost bare walls of rock to a height of from 3000 to 4000 ft above the water. The two highest summits are the Fronalpstock and the Rophaien (2078 m). Between them the steep glen or ravine of the Riemenstaldener Tal descends to Sisikon, the only village with Flüelen right on the shore on that side of the Urnersee. On the opposite or western shore, the mountains attain still greater dimensions. The Niederbauen Chulm is succeeded by the Oberbauenstock, and farther south, above the ridge of the Scharti, appear the snowy peaks of the Gitschen and the Uri Rotstock (2,928 m). In the centre opens the Reuss Valley, backed by the rugged summits of the Urner and Glarner Alps.</p><br>
<p>The breadth of these various sections of the lake is very variable, but is usually between one and two miles (3 km). The lake&#39;s surface, whose mean height above the sea is 434 metres, is the lowest point of the cantons of Uri, Obwalden and Nidwalden. Originally the lake was susceptible to variations in level and flooding along its shoreline. Between 1859 and 1860, the introduction of a needle dam in the Reuss in the city of Lucerne, just upstream from the Spreuerbrücke, allowed the lake level to be stabilised.</p><br>
<p>The culminating point of the lake&#39;s drainage basin, as well as Central Switzerland, is the Dammastock at 3,630 metres above sea level.</p><br>
<h2>Settlements</h2><br>
<h2>Navigation</h2><br>
<p>The lake is navigable, and has formed an important part of Switzerland&#39;s transport system for many centuries, and at least since the opening of the first track across the Gotthard Pass in 1230. This trade grew with the opening of a new mail coach road across the pass in 1830. This road had its northern terminus at Flüelen at the extreme eastern end of the lake, and the lake provided the only practical onward link to Lucerne, and hence the cities of northern Switzerland and beyond.</p><br>
<p>Whilst the development of Switzerland&#39;s road and rail networks has relieved the lake of much of its through traffic, it continues to be used by a considerable number of vessels, both private and public. Much of this usage is tourist or leisure oriented, but the lake continues to provide practical public and cargo transport links between the smaller lakeside communities.</p><br>
<p>Passenger boats of the Schifffahrtsgesellschaft des Vierwaldstättersees (SGV) provide services on the lake, including many run by historic paddle steamers. The SGV serves 32 places along the shore of the lake, with interchange to both main line and mountain railways at various points. Under separate management, the Autofähre Beckenried-Gersau provides a car ferry service between Beckenried, on the south bank of the lake, and Gersau on the north.</p><br>
<p>Cargo barges, to a local design known as Nauen, are still used on the lake. Some have been converted for use as party boats. Other barges are used by the gravel dredging industry that operates on the lake, using large dredgers to obtain sand and gravel for use in the construction industry.</p><br>
<h2>Cultural references</h2><br>
<p>Beethoven&#39;s "Moonlight" Sonata derives its name from an 1832 description of the first movement by music critic Ludwig Rellstab, who compared it to moonlight shining upon Lake Lucerne.</p><br>
<p>Gioacchino Rossini uses this in his Overture to William Tell Section A: Sunrise over the Alps.</p><br>
<p>The Adler Planetarium is a public museum dedicated to the study of astronomy and astrophysics. It was founded in 1930 by Chicago business leader Max Adler. It is located on the northeast tip of Northerly Island at the shore of Lake Michigan in Chicago, Illinois. The Adler is Americas first planetarium and part of Chicagos Museum Campus, which includes the John G. Shedd Aquarium and The Field Museum. The Adler&#39;s mission is to inspire exploration and understanding of the universe.</p><br>
<p>The Adler Planetarium opened to the public on May 10, 1930. For its design, architect Ernest A. Grunsfeld, Jr. was awarded the gold medal of the Chicago chapter of the American Institute of Architects in 1931. It was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1987.</p><br>
<p>The Adler is home to three full size theaters, extensive space science exhibitions, and a significant collection of antique scientific instruments and print materials. In addition, the Adler boasts the, one of the only research-active, public urban observatories. This lakeside observatory is the only place in Chicago where the public can see planets, stars, and galaxies up-close and in person.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Establishment</h3><br>
<p>In 1923, Oskar von Miller of the Deutsches Museum commissioned the Carl Zeiss Works to design a mechanism that projects an image of celestial bodies onto a dome. This was achieved by Walther Bauersfeld and the invention became known as a planetarium when it debuted the next year. Its popularity quickly spread, and by 1929, there were fifteen in Germany, two in Italy, one in Russia, and one in Austria. Max Adler, a former executive with Sears, Roebuck & Co. in Chicago, Illinois, had recently retired to focus on philanthropic endeavors, primarily on behalf of the local musical and Jewish communities. However, after listening to a friend describe a Munich planetarium, Adler decided that a planetarium would fit in well within the emerging Museum Campus in Chicago. Adler visited the Munich planetarium with his cousin, architect Ernest Grunsfeld, Jr., whom Adler would commission to design the Chicago structure. He also learned about a sale of astronomical instruments and antiques by W. M. Mensing in Amsterdam, which he purchased the following year. The Mensing Collection became the focus of the Astronomical Museum. Adler offered $500,000 in 1928 for the construction of the first planetarium in the Western Hemisphere.</p><br>
<p>The planetarium was originally considered for part of the Museum of Science and Industry, an endeavor led by Adlers brother-in-law Julius Rosenwald. Rosenwald was determined to convert the former Palace of Fine Arts of the 1893 Worlds Columbian Exposition into a museum, but was struggling to manage the many required renovations. These delays caused Adler to look elsewhere for a location. The South Park Commissioners, the precursor to the Chicago Park District, had just completed Northerly Island, the first of five intended (but otherwise never executed) recreational islands that were to be consistent with Daniel Burnhams 1909 Plan of Chicago. The Adler Planetarium and Astronomical Museum opened on Adlers birthday, May 12, 1930. The Chicago chapter of the American Institute of Architects awarded Grunsfield a gold medal for his design. The planetarium hosted the 44th meeting of the American Astronomical Society later that year.</p><br>
<h3>Timeline</h3><br>
<p>1923 – Walther Bauersfeld, scientific director of the firm of Carl Zeiss in Jena, Germany, designs an optical projection device that effectively creates the illusion of a night sky. With this innovation, the modern planetarium is born.</p><br>
<p>1928 – Max Adler and architect Ernest Grunsfeld travel to Germany. Adler is so impressed by the modern planetarium that he donates funds to construct the first planetarium in the Western Hemisphere.</p><br>
<p>1930 – Max Adler purchases the collection of A.W. Mensing at an auction in Amsterdam. This impressive collection of antique scientific instruments provided the foundation for the Adler’s collection. The opened to the public on Max Adler’s birthday, May 12. Phillip Fox, Ph.D., a well-known professor of astronomy at Northwestern University, is appointed the Planetarium’s first director.</p><br>
<p>1933 – The Century of Progress Exposition takes place on what is now the Museum Campus.</p><br>
<p>1941 – Philip Fox is deployed to the Army; Assistant Director Maude Bennot is appointed Acting Director of the Planetarium during his absence.</p><br>
<p>1952 – Max Adler passes away.</p><br>
<p>1967 – The Board of Trustees is created to share in the responsibilities and management of the Adler Planetarium with the commissioners of the Chicago Park District. The Adler refurbishes the building and replaces the original Zeiss projector with a new Mark VI Zeiss unit.</p><br>
<p>1973 – A new underground expansion opens to the public on May 12, 1973, the Adler’s 43rd birthday.</p><br>
<p>1976 – The Board of Trustees assume full management responsibility of the Adler, but continue to receive support from the Chicago Park District.</p><br>
<p>1977 – The opens.</p><br>
<p>1991 – The museum unveils the results of its $6.5 million renovation project. After 23 years of leadership, Dr. Joseph M. Chamberlain retires.</p><br>
<p>1999 – The 60,000 square foot Sky Pavilion, designed by Lohan Associates of Chicago, opens to the public. This new addition features four new exhibition galleries, including the historic Atwood Sphere and the Definiti (formerly StarRider) Theater.</p><br>
<p>2005 – Retired NASA Astronaut James A. Lovell, Jr. serves as chairmain of Adler’s 75th anniversary celebration.</p><br>
<p>2007 – The Adler unveils its new, bringing the latest images of space science to the public.</p><br>
<p>2010 – The Adler begins transformation of the historic Sky Theater. The renamed Grainger Sky Theater opened in May 2011. The Grainger becomes the most technologically advanced dome theater in the world. Thomas Roszak Architecture designed the Clark Family Welcome Gallery using an LED lit fabric and aluminum structure that included educational interactive material projected on the fabric walls.</p><br>
<p>2012 – Paul H. Knappenberger, Jr. Ph.D., announces his retirement after 21 years of service.</p><br>
<p>2013 – The Board of Trustees elects astrophysicist and academic leader Michelle B. Larson, Ph.D., as president and CEO. Dr. Larson becomes the Adler’s ninth leader and the first female president.</p><br>
<p>The view of the Chicago skyline from the planetarium is considered one of the best in the city.</p><br>
<h2>Research</h2><br>
<p>The Adler Planetarium’s Astronomy department and Webster Institute for the History of Astronomy conduct and publish research for both the scientific community as well as the general public.</p><br>
<p>Adler astronomers possess rich and diverse expertise in many areas of astronomy as well as other closely related science fields. Their studies include planetary geology, star formation, gamma-rays, and telescope observing.</p><br>
<p>The Webster Institute for the History of Astronomy cares for, studies, and interprets the Adler’s collections. Since the opening of the Adler, the collection has grown to approximately 8,000 objects, books, works on paper, archival collections, paintings, and photographs. The Adler boasts the largest and most significant collection of historic scientific instruments in the Western Hemisphere as well as one of the most significant collections in the world.</p><br>
<p>At the Space Visualization Laboratory (SVL) scientists, technology experts, artists, and educators work together to create new ways for people to virtually explore the Universe. Since its inauguration in 2007, the SVL has brought cutting edge research from scientists in the most prominent institutions around the country, as well as immersive and interactive technologies to the museum floor. In SVL visitors can experience new interactive and immersive visualizations, and attend presentations by astronomers and related researchers featuring these visualizations.</p><br>
<p>The Adler Citizen Science Department is also the USA headquarters of The Zooniverse, one of the world&#39;s leading citizen science platform and a global collaboration across several institutions that design and build citizen science projects. As of early 2014, the Zooniverse has engaged more than 1,100,000 online volunteers as active scientists by discovering planets, mapping the and detecting solar flares.</p><br>
<p>is the Adler’s high-altitude balloon program. Participants design, build, and launch experiments flown to heights above 100,000 ft on high-altitude balloons. The program offers real world opportunities for students and the community to participate in science, mathematics, physics, and engineering challenges.</p><br>
<p>Opened in 1977, the is the largest aperture telescope available to the public in the Chicago area. With its 20-inch (0.5 m) diameter mirror, the Doane can gather over 5,000 times more light than an unaided human eye, allowing guests to see celestial objects like the Moon, planets, stars, and galaxies that are trillions of miles away. The original telescope, a 16-inch Cassegrain reflecting telescope built by the Adler optical and machine shop staff, was retired in 1987 and replaced with the current telescope.</p><br>
<p>In 2013, the Adler Planetarium announced plans to undertake the first major renovation of the Doane Observatory. Expected completion in 2015, renovations will include the addition of an indoor classroom, a restroom, HVAC systems, accessible entry ramps, and telescope and technology upgrades.</p><br>
<p>The Adler Planetarium is a member institution of the Large Synoptic Survey Telescope project.</p><br>
<h2>Theaters</h2><br>
<p>The largest of Adlers domed theaters, the Grainger Sky Theater, offers audiences unique shows using the most immersive, technologically enhanced theater experience ever developed for a planetarium. The Adlers second domed theater, the Definiti Theater takes audiences on a spectacular journey in any one of its featured shows using an all-digital projection system. The Adler&#39;s newly redesigned Samuel C. Johnson Family Star Theater allows audiences to the chance to see one incomparable show in dazzling, high definition 3D.</p><br>
<h2>Exhibitions</h2><br>
<h3>Planet Explorers</h3><br>
<p>The Adler&#39;s permanent exhibition Planet Explorers allows families with young children to take the helm in this modern-day space adventure. Children will enter a world where they can play and learn what it takes to be part of a mission to outer space. They will become scientists, astronauts and space explorers.</p><br>
<h3>Our Solar System</h3><br>
<p>In this interactive exhibition, visitors can virtually explore the Sun and its surrounding eight planets. Highlights of this exhibition include tangible pieces of Mars, the Moon, a meteorite and the dwarf planet Ceres, and the asteroid Vesta.</p><br>
<h3>The Universe: A Walk Through Space and Time</h3><br>
<p>In this interactive exhibition, visitors experience how the Universe evolved over 13.7 billion years – from the Big Bang to modern day. As they travel through time, immersive media shows visitors how galaxies, stars, planets – and even the very atoms in their bodies – were created as the Universe grew.</p><br>
<h3>The Historic Atwood Sphere</h3><br>
<p>Constructed in 1913, the Atwood Sphere is Chicago’s oldest large-scale mechanical planetarium. It is 15 feet in diameter with 692 holes in its metal surface, allowing light to enter and show the positions of the brightest stars in the night sky. When in operation, the sphere slowly rotates around the viewer putting the stars in motion. Originally, this device was not only a planetarium display, but was also used to train pilots to navigate the nighttime sky.</p><br>
<h3>Telescopes: Through The Looking Glass</h3><br>
<p>Telescopes: Through the Looking Glass presents the technology used to gather information about our Universe. The exhibition shows how these amazing instruments have changed our concepts of the Universe and our place in it. Telescopes: Through the Looking Glass has recently received a new addition that explores the South Pole Telescope. Located at the Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station in Antarctica, this extreme weather instrument was designed to explore light emitted from the Universe billions of years ago.</p><br>
<h3>Mission Moon</h3><br>
<p>This permanent exhibition highlights the exciting stories of human space exploration. The exhibition shares the story of Captain James A. Lovell, Jr. and features the fully restored Gemini 12 spacecraft and the Lovell Collection of personal space artifacts. The interactive Moon Wall allows visitors to fly over the lunar surface, exploring images from the Moon’s surface.</p><br>
<h3>Astronomy In Culture</h3><br>
<p>Astronomy in Culture tells the tale of the understanding and use of astronomy in ancient and medieval cultures. This sprawling, permanent exhibition encompasses two engaging exhibitions, Bringing Heavens to Earth and Universe in Your Hands.</p><br>
<h3>Bringing Heavens To Earth</h3><br>
<p>Since ancient times, people have looked at the heavens with awe and wonder, but they have also used the sky as an inspiration and resource for the entire spectrum of their lives. Visitors learn about cultures that have engaged in the timeless quest to understand their place in the Universe, and found diverse ways to incorporate astronomy into their daily lives. Plant potatoes by the Pleiades as they do in the Andes, send an Egyptian pharaoh to his celestial destiny, and look at the Moon and Jupiter to determine your fate as an Assyrian king.</p><br>
<h3>Universe In Your Hands</h3><br>
<p>Visitors are taken to a time in history when people believed that the Earth was the center of the Universe. This exhibition features spectacular astrolabes, armillary spheres, and sundials to illustrate the medieval European and Middle Eastern conception of the Universe. The medieval classroom explores how different school was in the Middle Ages compared to today. Visitors learn how to use early astronomy tools including astrolabes and sundials.</p><br>
<h3>Space Visualization Laboratory (SVL)</h3><br>
<p>SVL presents the unique experience of a working visualization laboratory to museum visitors. The SVL is open to the public for Astronomy Conversationsand "Open Lab", engaging sessions that provide Adler visitors the opportunity to meet astronomers, scientists, visualization experts and historians in an informal setting, and learn more through dynamic, immersive, stereoscopic and interactive visualizations.</p><br>
<h2>Ongoing Programs</h2><br>
<p>Adler After Dark, the Adler Planetarium’s exclusive 21+ evening event, was recently voted “Best After Hours Event” by the Chicago Reader and “Best Date Night” by Chicago Parent. Guests at Adler After Dark enjoy open museum access, themed programs, sky shows and breathtaking views of the Chicago skyline. AstroOvernights give families a chance to spend a night under the stars at the Adler. Guests enjoy open museum access, a sky show and educational programming. The Astronomy Department at the Adler brings current topics in astronomy to guests through a quarterly lecture series.</p><br>
<p>The Adler hosts quarterly Hack Days, encouraging software developers, designers, scientists, engineers, artists and people who just like to create and build, to work together to solve interesting problems. Hacking events at the Adler provide a bridge to science and technology communities within the city of Chicago. Participants at the Adler‘s summer camps build rockets, launch high-altitude balloons, and explore the edge of space. The Adler&#39;s hands-on summer camps are designed for children ages 5–14. With seven unique camps to choose from, young space and technology enthusiasts are introduced to science concepts while engaging their creativity.</p><br>
<p>Astro Overnights give families a chance to spend a night under the stars at the Adler. Guests enjoy open museum access, a sky show and educational programming.</p><br>
<h2>Image gallery</h2><br>
<p>File:Externalview Adler Planetarium.JPGExternal view</p><br>
<p>Image:Adler_fg01.jpgExternal view</p><br>
<p>Image:20071029 Sundial at the Adler.JPGExternal view</p><br>
<p>Image:2003-08-14 Adler Planetarium sundial.jpgMan Enters the Cosmos</p><br>
<p>Image:Adler_fg03.jpgPlanets</p><br>
<p>Image:Adler_fg04.jpgMeteorite</p><br>
<p>Image:Adler_fg05.jpgSize Wise</p><br>
<p>Image:Adler_fg06.jpgExhibition</p><br>
<p>Image:Adler_fg07.jpgAtwood Celestial Sphere</p><br>
<p>Image:Adler_fg08.jpgProjector</p><br>
<p>File:Adler Planetarium 1939 poster.jpg1939 WPA poster</p><br>
<p>File:Downtown Chicago Illinois Nov05 img 2702.jpg</p><br>
<p>The Cataraqui River  forms the lower portion of the Rideau Canal and drains into Lake Ontario at Kingston, Ontario. The name is taken from the original name for Kingston, Ontario; its exact meaning, however, is undetermined. Early maps showed several name variations including the Great Cataraqui River and Grand River Cataraquay. The river was once called Riviere de Frontenac, or Frontenac River.</p><br>
<p>Prior to the Rideau Canal being built (1826–1832), the Cataraqui River had its headwaters in Dog and Loughborough lakes. It was a meandering creek, a 1795 map (by surveyor Lewis Grant) noted "a great number of rapids and Carrying Places on this creek." This changed with the building of the Rideau Canal. The Superintending Engineer of the project, Lt. Colonel John By, used a slackwater construction technique, building dams to drown rapids. In the area of the Cataraqui Creek from Upper Brewers to Kingston Mills he had the forests cut down to form a straight channel (this work is visible in the Burrowes paintings of Brewer&#39;s Lower Mill shown below). Then the area was flooded in late 1831/early 1832 with the completion of canal dams at Kingston Mills, Lower Brewers and Upper Brewers.</p><br>
<p>Today the watershed of the Cataraqui River includes lakes south of the watershed divide at Newboro, such as Sand, Opinicon, Clear and Newboro. However, in the pre-canal era, water from those lakes flowed into the White Fish River which drained to the Gananoque River rather than the Cataraqui River. The section between those two rivers was the Cranberry Flood Plain; the only water contribution from the White Fish River to the Cataraqui was in times of spring flood. This changed in the early 1800s with the building of a mill dam by Lemuel Haskins at White Fish Falls, near today&#39;s village of Morton. That dam retarded the outflow of the White Fish River to the Gananoque, backed it up over the Cranberry Flood Plain, sending water south to the Cataraqui River. To stop the escape of his mill water down Cataraqui Creek, Haskins built a second dam at the Round Tail (just north of Upper Brewers) which blocked the channel of the creek. These two dams made the Cataraqui Flood Plain navigable for the first time.</p><br>
<p>When the Rideau Canal was built, Haskins&#39; dam at Morton was enlarged and a new dam was built at Upper Brewers. Those two dams (managed today by Parks Canada) created Whitefish Lake, Little Cranberry Lake and much expanded Cranberry and Dog lakes. Most of the flow from what was previously the White Fish River watershed now flows down the Cataraqui River.</p><br>
<p>The Cataraqui Region Conservation Authority administers water management concerns within the Cataraqui River watershed.</p><br>
<p>Qumran  is an archaeological site in the West Bank managed by Israel&#39;s Qumran National Park. It is located on a dry plateau about 1.5 km from the northwestern shore of the Dead Sea, near the Israeli settlement and kibbutz of Kalya. The Hellenistic period settlement was constructed during the reign of John Hyrcanus, or somewhat later, and was occupied most of the time until it was destroyed by the Romans in or shortly after. It is best known as the settlement nearest to the Qumran Caves where the Dead Sea Scrolls were hidden, caves in the sheer desert cliffs and beneath, in the marl terrace. The principal excavations at Qumran were conducted by Roland de Vaux in the 1950s, though several later unearthings at the site have since been carried out.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Since the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls in 1947–1956, extensive excavations have taken place in Qumran. Nearly 900 scrolls were discovered. Most were written on parchment and some on papyrus. Cisterns, Jewish ritual baths, and cemeteries have been found, along with a dining or assembly room and debris from an upper story alleged by some to have been a scriptorium as well as pottery kilns and a tower.</p><br>
<p>Many scholars believe the location was home to a Jewish sect, probably the Essenes. But, according to Lawrence Schiffman, the rules of the community, its heavy stress on priesthood and the Zadokite legacy, and other details indicate a Sadducean-oriented sect either distinct from or one of the various Essene groupings. Others propose non-sectarian interpretations, some of these starting with the notion that it was a Hasmonean fort that was later transformed into a villa for a wealthy family, or a production center, perhaps a pottery factory or something similar.</p><br>
<p>A large cemetery was discovered to the east of the site. While most of the graves contain the remains of males, some females were also discovered, though some burials may be from medieval times. Only a small portion of the graves were excavated, as excavating cemeteries is forbidden under Jewish law. Over a thousand bodies are buried at Qumran cemetery. One theory is that bodies were those of generations of sectarians, while another is that they were brought to Qumran because burial was easier there than in rockier surrounding areas.</p><br>
<p>The scrolls were found in a series of eleven caves around the settlement, some accessible only through the settlement. Some scholars have claimed that the caves were the permanent libraries of the sect, due to the presence of the remains of a shelving system. Other scholars believe that some caves also served as domestic shelters for those living in the area. Many of the texts found in the caves appear to represent widely accepted Jewish beliefs and practices, while other texts appear to speak of divergent, unique, or minority interpretations and practices. Some scholars believe that some of these texts describe the beliefs of the inhabitants of Qumran, who may have been Essenes, or the asylum for supporters of the traditional priestly family of the Zadokites against the Hasmonean priest/kings. A literary epistle published in the 1990s expresses reasons for creating a community, some of which resemble Sadducean arguments in the Talmud. Most of the scrolls seem to have been hidden in the caves during the turmoil of the First Jewish–Roman War (66–73 CE), although some of them may have been deposited earlier.</p><br>
<h2>Discovery and excavation</h2><br>
<h3>Early site analysis</h3><br>
<p>The site of Khirbet Qumran had been known to European explorers since the 19th century. The initial attention of the early explorers was focused on the cemetery, beginning with de Saulcy in 1851. In fact, the first excavations at Qumran (prior to the development of modern methodology) were of burials in the cemetery, conducted by Henry Poole in 1855 followed by Charles Clermont-Ganneau in 1873.</p><br>
<p>Rev. Albert Isaacs, British counsel James Finn, and photographer James Graham visited Qumran in December 1856. Isaacs stated regarding Qumran&#39;s tower, "It can hardly be doubted that this formed a tower or stronghold of some kind. The situation is commanding, and well adapted for defensive operations." Finn later suggested Qumran was "some ancient fort with a cistern".</p><br>
<p>The British scholar Ernest William Gurney Masterman visited Qumran on several occasions between 1900 and 1901. After observing the positioning of Qumran atop a plateau overlooking the ‘Ein Feshkha Springs, he concluded the ruins "may have very well been once a small fortress". Masterman also questioned why a small fort would require a graveyard of over one thousand tombs.</p><br>
<p>Gustaf Dalman visited Qumran in 1914, and explicitly identified Qumran as a burg, or fort. Archaeologist Michael Avi-Yonah agreed with Dalman’s identification of Qumran as a fort and published a map that identified the remains at Qumran as part of a string of fortresses along the southeastern Judean border.</p><br>
<h3>Major excavations</h3><br>
<p>Full-scale work at the site began after Roland de Vaux and G. Lankester Harding in 1949 excavated what became known as Cave 1, the first scroll-bearing cave. A cursory surface survey that year produced nothing of interest, but continued interest in the scrolls led to a more substantial analysis of the ruins at Qumran in 1951. This analysis yielded traces of pottery closely related to that found in Cave 1. This discovery led to intensive excavations at the site over a period of six seasons (1951–1956) under the direction of de Vaux.</p><br>
<p>Used with permission – author upload.</p><br>
<p>The Iron Age remains at the site, which were modest but included a lmlk-seal, led de Vaux to identify Qumran as the City of Salt listed in Josh 15:62. The site, however, may be identified with Secacah, which is referenced in the same area as the City of Salt in Josh 15:61. Secacah is mentioned in the Copper Scroll, and the water works of Secacah that are described in this source are consistent with those of Qumran. The excavations revealed that after the Iron Age, Qumran was principally in use from the Hasmonean times until some time after the destruction of the temple by Titus in 70 CE. De Vaux divided this use into three periods:</p><br>
<p>Period I, the Hasmonean era, which he further divided in two:</p><br>
<p>Period Ia, the time of John Hyrcanus</p><br>
<p>Period Ib, the latter Hasmoneans, ending with an earthquake and fire in 31 BCE (this was followed by a hiatus in de Vaux&#39;s interpretation of the site)</p><br>
<p>Period II, the Herodian era, starting in 4 BCE on up to the destruction of the site apparently at the hands of the Romans during the Jewish War</p><br>
<p>Period III, a reoccupation in the ruins</p><br>
<p>De Vaux&#39;s periodization has been challenged by both Jodi Magness and Yizhar Hirschfeld.</p><br>
<p>The site that de Vaux uncovered divides into two main sections: a main building, a squarish structure of two stories featuring a central courtyard and a defensive tower on its north-western corner; and a secondary building to the west. The excavation revealed a complex water system that had supplied water to several stepped cisterns, some quite large, located in various parts of the site. Two of these cisterns were within the walls of the main building.</p><br>
<p>Both the buildings and the water system evince signs of consistent evolution throughout the life of the settlement. with frequent additions, extensions and improvements. The water channel was raised to carry water to newer cisterns farther away and a dam was placed in the upper section of Wadi Qumran to secure more water, which was brought to the site by an aqueduct. Rooms were added, floors were raised, pottery ovens relocated and locations were repurposed.</p><br>
<p>De Vaux found three inkwells at Qumran (Loci 30 (2) and 31) and over the following years more inkwells have come to light with a Qumran origin. Jan Gunneweg identified a fourth (locus 129). S. Steckoll found a fifth (reportedly near the scriptorium). Magen and Peleg found a sixth inkwell. Without counting the Ein Feshkha inkwell or others with debated provenance, that number is more inkwells than found at any other site of the Second Temple Period, a significant indication of writing at Qumran.</p><br>
<h3>De Vaux's interpretations</h3><br>
<p>De Vaux interpreted his findings at Qumran based (at least in part) upon information in the Dead Sea Scrolls—which continued to be discovered in the nearby caves throughout his excavations. De Vaux concluded that the remains at Qumran were left by a sectarian religious community. Using his excavations as well as textual sources, including the Dead Sea Scrolls and the historical accounts recorded by Pliny the Elder, Philo, and Flavius Josephus, De Vaux&#39;s conclusion was that the inhabitants of the site were a sect of highly ritualistic Jews called the Essenes, a conclusion that has come to be known as the "Qumran–Essene hypothesis". This hypothesis suggests that the original residents of the settlement were the Essenes, and that they established the site in the desert for religious purposes.</p><br>
<p>He interpreted the room above locus 30 as a "scriptorium" because he discovered inkwells there. A plastered bench was also discovered in the remains of an upper story. De Vaux concluded that this was the area where the Essenes could have written some of the Dead Sea Scrolls. De Vaux also interpreted locus 77 as a "refectory", or a community dining hall, based on the discovery of numerous sets of bowls in the nearby "pantry" of locus 89. Additionally, de Vaux interpreted many of the numerous stepped cisterns as "miqva’ot", or Jewish ritual baths, due to their similarity to several stepped and partitioned ritual baths near the Jerusalem Temple Mount.</p><br>
<p>Regarding the scrolls De Vaux cautiously stated that "manuscripts were copied in the scriptorium of Qumran... We may also suppose... that certain works were composed at Khirbet Qumran. But beyond this we cannot go." He believed that the Essenes later hid the scrolls in the nearby caves when they felt their safety was in danger.</p><br>
<p>Roland de Vaux died in 1971 without having provided a full report on the excavations at Qumran. In 1986 the École Biblique appointed the Belgian archaeologist Robert Donceel to the task of publishing the final results of de Vauxs excavations. Preliminary findings were presented at a conference in New York in 1992, but a final report never eventuated. According to Pauline Donceel-Voûte the final report was impossible to write, because many artifacts had been lost or corrupted (in particular, according to the Donceels, some of the coins excavated by Roland de Vaux from Qumran had been lost.) To fill the gap, the École had a synthesis of de Vauxs field notes published in 1994. This volume included several hundred photographs, 48 pages of measurement, and summary descriptions of the field diaries. An English translation of the field notes synthesis was published in 2003. However many of de Vaux&#39;s archaeological findings from Qumran (which are stored in the Rockefeller Museum) are still not published and are inaccessible to scholars and the public.</p><br>
<h3>Further excavations and surveys</h3><br>
<p>Although de Vauxs excavations of Qumran were quite exhaustive, and thereby the most important source of information on the settlement, there have been several excavations since de Vaux finished his work. As de Vaux left little of the settlement unexcavated, later archaeologists have often turned elsewhere to continue research, including dump sites from de Vauxs excavations. During the 1960s, according to Catherine Murphy, there were some unpublished excavations at Qumran by John Allegro and by Solomon Steckoll. Steckoll also carried out work in the cemetery, excavating twelve tombs. In 1967 restoration work was performed at Qumran by R.W. Dajjani of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan.</p><br>
<p>In 1984 and 1985 Joseph Patrich and Yigael Yadin carried out a systematic survey of the caves and pathways around Qumran. Between 1985 and 1991 Patrich excavated five caves, including Caves 3Q and 11Q. One of Patrich&#39;s conclusions was that the caves "did not serve as habitations for the members of the Dead Sea Sect, but rather as stores and hiding places".</p><br>
<p>From mid-November 1993 to January 1994 the Israel Antiquities Authority carried out works in the Qumran compound and nearby installations as part of "Operation Scroll" under the direction of Amir Drori and Yitzhak Magen. In the winter of 1995–1996 and later seasons Magen Broshi and Hanan Eshel carried out further excavations in the caves north of Qumran; they also dug in the cemetery and in marl terrace caves. In 1996 James Strange and others dug at Qumran using remote sensing equipment. From 1996 to 1999 and later Yitzhak Magen and Yuval Peleg carried out excavations at Qumran under the auspices of the National Parks Authority. Randall Price and Oren Gutfield dug on the Qumran plateau, seasons in 2002, 2004 and 2005 (and plan a 2010 season).</p><br>
<h2>Recent archaeological analysis</h2><br>
<p>Most of the small finds from the de Vaux excavations were taken back to Jerusalem to be used in later excavation reports for Qumran, but the death of Roland de Vaux brought a halt to the reports and the small finds were left to gather dust on shelves in museum backrooms. In the late 1980s, archaeologist Robert Donceel worked on the de Vaux materials in a new effort towards publishing excavation reports. He found artifacts he believed did not fit the religious settlement model, including "sophisticated glass and stoneware". In 1992 Pauline Donceel-Voute put forward the Roman villa model in an attempt to explain these artifacts. In 2002 archaeologists Minna and Kenneth Lönnqvist published their archaeological and spatial studies at Qumran bringing another view to the settlement interpretations including the astronomical orientations of some structures at Qumran. A recent final publication of the French excavations by Jean-Baptist Humbert outlining evidence of a decorated frieze, opus sectile, fine columns etc., indicates a phase of a wealthier occupation, "une grande maison", at Qumran.</p><br>
<h3>Pottery</h3><br>
<p>The range of pottery, glass and high quantity of coins found at Qumran do not sit well in the context of a sectarian settlement according to the Donceels. These materials point to trade connections in the area, and provide evidence that Qumran may not have been in a vacuum in the Graeco-Roman period. Rachel Bar-Nathan has argued from similarities between pottery finds at Qumran and at the Hasmonean and Herodian palaces of Jericho that Qumran should be seen as part of the Jordan valley context, rather than as an isolated site. While the cylindrical "scroll jars" from Qumran were once thought unique, she cites a proposed similar find at Jericho, shows a related form existed at Masada, and reports that such jars have been found at Qalandiya. Bar-Nathan states from the Jericho palace data that, "It is possible to trace the typological development of this group of jars", i.e., the cylindrical jars. Jodi Magness, citing Bar-Nathans M.A. thesis on the Jericho pottery data, refers to cylindrical jars at Jericho, saying "t Jericho, most of these jars. come from an industrial area dating to the time of Herod". Jan Gunneweg observed that the supposed single partial parallel at Jericho – "a partly preserved rim and neck with a vertical loop handle" – is in fact not a "scroll" jar. Another one was reported found in Jordan in a later burial near Abila but no photos or drawings were published and the jar has not been relocated, showing de Vaux sought parallels. Taking into account subtypes of pottery, true cylindrical "scroll" jars are not common outside Qumran. They are, however, clearly not unique to Qumran. Bar-Nathan noted the jars "rarity in the Second Temple period". Of some of the proposed parallel Masada jars, Bar-Nathan wrote "It seems that this group of storage jars was brought (or pillaged?) from the area of Qumran and probably also from the Plain of Jericho."</p><br>
<h3>Cisterns</h3><br>
<p>Many scholars have viewed the several large stepped cisterns at Qumran as ritual baths. This supports the religious settlement model. There are difficulties in understanding all these cisterns as baths, however. Qumrans water arrived perhaps twice a year from rainwater runoff. Water was one of Qumrans most valued commodities, and water management is an integral part of the site, as seen with the numerous cisterns and channels. If the large cisterns were ritual baths, the water would sit getting dirtier through ritual bathing throughout the year and was extremely infrequently replenished by the run off. The current state of analysis of the cisterns is still unresolved, but Katharina Galor suggests a mixed usage of the stepped cisterns as both ritual baths and water storage. According to the Israeli archaeologists Magen and Peleg, the clay found in the cisterns was used for pottery factory facilities.</p><br>
<h3>Numismatic studies</h3><br>
<p>Coins from Qumran are one of the most important groups of primary evidence from the ancient site. Much of what has been written on the chronology, the occupational periods and the history of Qumran is based on the preliminary report and lecture by the original excavator, Roland de Vaux in 1961, which was translated in 1973. A tentative list of the Qumran bronze coins along with Roland de Vaux&#39;s field diary from the excavations was published in 1994 in French, in German in 1996 and in English in 2003.De Vaux 1994=R. de Vaux (1994) Ed. J.-B. Humbert and A. Chambon, Fouilles de Khirbet Qumrân et de Aïn Feshkha. Album de photographies. Répertoire du fonds photographique. Synthèse des notes de chantier du Père Roland de Vaux OP. Novum Testamentum et Orbis Antiquus, Series Archaeologica 1. Fribourg. De Vaux 1996=R. de Vaux, F. Rohrhirsch and B. Hofmeir (1996) Die Ausgrabungen von Qumran und En Feschcha. Die Grabungstagebücher. Novum Testamentum et Orbis Antiquus, Series Archaeologica 1A. Göttingen.</p><br>
<p>Humbert, Chambon and Pfann 2003=J.-B. Humbert, A. Chambon and S. Pfann (2003) The Excavations of Khirbet Qumran and Ein Feshkha. Synthesis of Roland de Vaux‘s Field Notes. Novum Testamentum et Orbis Antiquus, Series Archaeologica 1B. Fribourg. The first reconstruction of the Qumran bronze coinage, including a complete coin catalogue with up-dated and cross-referenced coin identifications, was done by Kenneth Lönnqvist and Minna Lönnqvist in 2005. Also in 1955, three very important silver coin hoards were found at Qumran. The first lot of the Qumran silver coins was published by Marcia Sharabani in 1980. The last two hoards located in Amman, Jordan, were published by Kenneth Lönnqvist in 2007.</p><br>
<h4>The bronze coinage</h4><br>
<p>De Vaux&#39;s excavations uncovered about 1250 coins (569 silver and 681 bronze coins) altogether from Qumran, though today some Qumran coins have been lost, some lots mixed-up, and records less accurate than ideal.</p><br>
<p>There are a surprisingly high number of coins from the site. This means that the site was highly monetized in the Hellenistic and Roman periods, i.e. that the occupants of Qumran were not a community of poor and isolated people. That the flow of cash at Qumran may have been large in the 1st century CE is hardly surprising given the archaeological evidence of trade at Qumran in luxury goods such as glass, which is specifically dated to this period.</p><br>
<p>The coin profile of Qumran shows that there do not appear to have been any major changes in the role of coins and money in the economic system at Qumran during any of the occupational periods from ca. 150 BCE. to 73 CE. Worth noting here is that the amount of coins found at Qumran suggests according to numismatic principles of loss and survival of ancient coins that millions of bronze coins must have circulated at Qumran.</p><br>
<p>The bronze coins identified from Qumran, some dating to the second and third years of the Jewish War, indicate that the site was still in use in 68 CE and only destroyed after 70 CE, perhaps as late as 73 CE. The coins from Qumran of this period end with a peculiar series of bronze coins minted in 72/73 CE at Ascalon, which sent auxiliary troops to assist the Roman army in the First Jewish–Roman War (66–73 CE).</p><br>
<p>In 73 CE the Romans stormed the mountain fortress of Masada, which also was located on the western bank of the Dead Sea. It is more than likely that Qumran was destroyed this same time, as the coin finds from Qumran end with the same peculiar bronze coins minted at Ascalon.</p><br>
<h4>The silver coinage</h4><br>
<p>According to the publications prior to 2007, the most recent silver coin in the Qumran hoard(s) is a tetradrachm of Tyre from the year 9/8 BCE.</p><br>
<h4>=Lönnqvist analysis of 2007=</h4><br>
<p>The publication of the bulk of the silver coins by K. A. K. Lönnqvist, and his regional analysis, resulted, in 2007, in a new interpretations as to the importance, chronology and significance of the coins. According to Lönnqvist, the newly dated coins in the silver coin hoards give an earliest possible burial date for the coin hoards to 52/3-66 CE, based on an interpretation of a countermark. However, the archaeological and numismatic nature of the silver coin hoard burials may suggest that the coin hoards may have been buried in the early 3rd century CE. The final coin belongs to Emperor Caracalla and came from the mint of Rome (206–210 CE).</p><br>
<p>The new suggestion made is that the silver coin hoards from Qumran may be connected to Roman military campaigns in the region, as these are widely attested to in the early 3rd century CE. It is also quite possible that the silver were part of Roman army payments made to troops in a local garrison.</p><br>
<p>According to Lönnqvist, the technical evidence of the recording and documenting of the Qumran silver coin hoards in 2006–2007 showed that the coins came from lots, groups or batches of coins that originated in a few or one single large payment. This payment may have come from a mint, bank or an authority like the treasury of the Roman army. The new evidence refutes the possibility that the silver coins could have been collected from single individuals, for instance, as tax payments, or that Qumran could have been a regional ‘tax house’.</p><br>
<p>The new 2007 analysis of the silver coinage contradicts the findings of de Vaux, Seyrig, and Spijkerman as well as the findings of Robert Donceel. Donceel was surprised to find in the Amman museum unrecorded coins, notably denarius coins of Trajan, that he claimed were intrusive. The original Amman Museum records of the Qumran coin hoards and the museum bags where the coins where kept do not support the hypothesis that the 2nd- and 3rd-century Roman coins are intrusive in relation to the Tyrian silver.</p><br>
<p>Furthermore, the new countermark that went unrecorded is apparently from 52/53 CE and the Greek letters in it do not support a date of 9/8 BCE, as the other countermarks. This means archaeologically and numismatically that at least one, but probably two minimum, of the three hoards post-date de Vaux&#39;s suggestion of a burial date after 9/8 BCE.</p><br>
<p>The unusual and intensive die-linkage of the Qumran silver hoards suggest that the three hoards were buried at the same time, and this would mean at the earliest in 52/53 CE.</p><br>
<p>According to Lönnqvist, a highly unusual type of coin hoard found at Ain Hanaziv in the Jordan Valley in the early 1960 and reported in the Israel Numismatic Bulletin supports his theory of a third-century CE date for the three silver coin hoards from Qumran. This Ain Hanaziv coin hoard spanned hundreds of years, starting from the Seleucid era and ended with the same kind of coins from reign of Septimius Severus in 210 CE.</p><br>
<p>Therefore, according to Lönnqvist, claiming an earlier date for the silver hoards is untenable and contradicts the first complete recording of the Qumran silver hoards made by him in 2007, which includes the first photographic evidence of the coin hoards, and the regional coin evidence from other hoards. It has already been shown that de Vaux&#39;s dating system of Qumran and the silver coin hoards was based on what is generally known as a circular argument; the end of the first major settlement period was dated after the assumed date of hiding of the coin hoards, which in turn dated the coin hoards themselves.</p><br>
<p>Nevertheless, Lönnqvist&#39;s theories have been criticized by Farhi and Price. They point to the fact that the identity of the silver coins from Qumran held at the Amman Museum in Jordan is not certain.</p><br>
<h3>Population at Qumran</h3><br>
<p>One important issue for the understanding of the site of Qumran is a realistic calculation of its population. Using estimates based on the size of the cemetery and average lifespan de Vaux calculated that the inhabitants "would not have numbered many more than 200 members". He noted that "here is a manifest disproportion between the number of tombs and the number of inhabitants for whom there was room in the buildings". This led him to speculate whether the caves were used as lodgings for his estimated 200 inhabitants. J.T. Milik some years earlier provided an estimate of between 150 and 200 as the average population, working on the comparison with the population of the monastery of Mar Saba, which numbered 150 monks in the 9th century and from Josephus&#39; figure of 3,000 Essenes calculating that "at least five per cent lived the strict monastic life". E.M. Laperrousaz went as high as 1,428 inhabitants. Magen Broshi, analyzing the size of L77 (which he calls an assembly hall), estimated that about 120 to 150 people could sit there, to which he added a few dozen candidates to the population, yielding over 170 people.</p><br>
<p>From 1983 to 1987 Joseph Patrich carried out archaeological surveys around Qumran and its caves. He concluded that the caves were "stores and hiding places". He found no traces of permanent tent dwellings and that any "dwelling quarters should be sought inside the wall of Khirbet Qumran, mainly on the upper floor". Patrich estimated that the population was only 50–70 people. Magen Broshi and Hanan Eshel, revisiting the caves and the territory around Qumran in 1995–1996, later pointed out that Patrichs estimate was far too high for what Qumran could offer, reducing the number to 12–20. They turned back to caves (mainly artificial ones cut into the marl terrace most of which have not survived) and tents (pointing to pottery and nails found along one of the paths near Qumran), and staying with 150–200 inhabitants. While waiting for the publication of Broshi and Eshels results, Patrich, anticipating them, doubted the possibility that there were once "significantly more habitable caves" cut into the marl, pointing to the lack of paths and suitable terrain. He went on to discount the significance of the nails for tent dwelling without "further substantial evidence and returned to a figure of "a few tens of residents, fifty at most". Jodi Magness accepted Broshi&#39;s estimate, adding "This number accords better than lower estimates with the presence of over 1000 dining dishes in the pantry (L86)."</p><br>
<p>Working from ratios of populations in other ancient settlements, Yizhar Hirschfeld estimated the population of Qumran thus: "If we use the lower value of fifteen people per dunam, it emerges that in the Hasmonean period only about 20 people occupied the site of Qumran. Yitzhak Magen and Yuval Peleg entered the discussion commenting on how one could feed such large numbers of community members: "Were we to accept the claim that the sect lived at Qumran for about 170 years, we would expect to find hundreds of cooking and baking ovens as well as thousands of cooking pots."</p><br>
<p>The population question is a complex issue, as can be seen by the above considerations. Much hinges on interpretation of two locations at Qumran—the refectory and the pantry. The search for extramural dwelling quarters has failed to provide substantial evidence. Discounting Laperrousaz&#39;s apparently excessively high estimate, a number of proposals put the population in and around Qumran at between 20 and 200 people.</p><br>
<h2>Qumran-Essene hypothesis</h2><br>
<p>There were not many serious challenges to de Vauxs interpretation of the site of Qumran as a settlement of Essenes from the time it was introduced. While the archaeologist E.-M. Laperrousaz, had some quite divergent views, members of de Vauxs team followed approximately the same narrative, with minor deviations, members including J. T. Milik, and F. M. Cross. De Vauxs initial dig co-director, G. Lankester Harding, wrote an article in 1955 where he presented Qumran as, "...a building in which John the Baptist, and probably Christ, studied: Khirbet Qumran". Others outside de Vauxs team proposed other interpretations, people such as Henri del Medico, Solomon Zeitlin, and G. R. Driver, but their analyses received little lasting attention. More recently, Lawrence H. Schiffman has defended the thesis that the Qumran documents indicate a Sadducean sectarian orientation, but while scholars commonly grant that the term "Essenes" probably included a diversity of groups, the sectarian Sadducean hypothesis remains a minority opinion.</p><br>
<p>In 1960 Karl Heinrich Rengstorf proposed that the Dead Sea Scrolls were not the product of the residents of Qumran, but came from the library of the Jerusalem Temple, despite their being discovered near Qumran. (Rengstorfs basic Jerusalem proposal has become increasingly more popular since the materials from de Vauxs excavations of Qumran were brought into the public arena in 1992.)</p><br>
<p>James H. Charlesworth in 1980 proposed that Qumran was damaged in the Parthian war c. 40 BCE.</p><br>
<p>Jean-Baptiste Humbert, who published de Vaux&#39;s field notes, proposes a hybrid solution to the debate surrounding Qumran. He accepts that the site might have been originally established as a villa rustica, but that the site was abandoned and that it was reoccupied by Essenes in the late 1st century BCE. Humbert argues that the site may also have been used a place where sectarian pilgrims—barred from entering Jerusalem—may have celebrated the pilgrimage.</p><br>
<p>Minna Lönnqvist and Kenneth Lönnqvist brought an approach to the Qumran studies based on contextual archaeology with its spatial studies and interpretation of symbolic language of the archaeological data, positing that text scholars, who had only focused their studies on the scrolls, had removed the Dead Sea Scrolls from their archaeological context.</p><br>
<p>The Lönnqvists proposed that the orientations of the settlement and graves show they both belonged to an intentional scheme based on a solar calendar. From this, they argued that the settlement and cemetery are connected to the Dead Sea Scrolls and associated with an Essene-type group, which finds the closest parallels in the contemporary Jewish Therapeutic group known to have lived in Egypt.</p><br>
<p>Robert Cargill argues that the theory suggesting Qumran was established as a Hasmonean fortress is not incompatible with the theory proposing that a group of Jewish sectarians reoccupied the site. Cargill suggests that Qumran was established as a Hasmonean fort (see below, "Qumran as fortress"), abandoned, and later reoccupied by Jewish settlers, who expanded the site in a communal, non-military fashion, and who were responsible for the Dead Sea Scrolls.</p><br>
<p>Some who challenged de Vaux&#39;s findings took issue with the practice of using the Dead Sea Scrolls to interpret the archaeological remains at Qumran. They argued that these remains should be interpreted independently, without any influence from the Dead Sea Scrolls. Various reinterpretations have led to various conclusions about the site. These include:</p><br>
<h3>Qumran as fortress</h3><br>
<p>The overlooked early suggestion that Qumran was a fortress was given new life by the analysis of Pessach Bar-Adon. Using de Vauxs Period 1a findings, his own excavations at Ain el-Ghuweir 15 km south of Qumran, and Mazars level 2 at &#39;En-Gedi, Bar-Adon argued, "these fortresses to John Hyrcanus, who needed a strong, comprehensive defence system commanding vital water sources, agricultural fields, flocks, Jordan River crossings, the plains of Jericho and the caravan routes in the Judean desert. He turned the Qumran-Ain Feshka oasis, like the one at En-Gedi, into crown property and incorporated his tenants into his strategic plans."</p><br>
<p>Norman Golb took up the notion that the Qumran settlement was established as a fortress and argued—against the prevailing views of the time—that not only was Qumran not established as a sectarian residence, but that there were no sectarians at the site at all. Like Rengstorf he proposed that the Scrolls had been produced in Jerusalem, but unlike Rengstorf, Golb argues that the scrolls came from different libraries throughout Jerusalem and were hidden in the caves by Jews fleeing the Romans during a political uprising.</p><br>
<h3>Qumran as villa</h3><br>
<p>Robert Donceel and Pauline Donceel-Voûte focused their research on the small finds amongst de Vauxs unpublished materials from Qumran, including, but not limited to, glassware (55 newly catalogued items), stoneware (53 new items), metal wares, and coins. Contrary to the belief that the inhabitants of the site were poor monastics, Donceel and Donceel-Voûte suggest that the residents were actually wealthy traders, with connections to the upper class and wealthy in nearby Jerusalem. They ultimately suggest that Qumran was a villa rustica, or wealthy manor house that may have been a winter or year-round second home to some wealthy family from Jerusalem. (At the same conference as the Donceels presentation, J. Magness reported that from what she saw of the pottery in the Rockefeller Museum that "there was very, very little in the way of fine wares". Eric Meyers, next, said "I concur; my visits also corroborate that. I see an affirmative nod from Professor Donceel-Voute." Rachel Bar-Nathan also notes, "t Jericho, there is also a striking lack of luxury ware, with only a few painted shards in the whole repertoire.")</p><br>
<h3>Qumran as commercial center</h3><br>
<p>While the villa model has gained little support, the evidence that it tried to deal with has led to further attempts at explanation.</p><br>
<p>Lena Cansdale and Alan Crown argued for the first time that the settlement was a fortified road station and a port town on the shores of the Dead Sea, meaning that the site was actually a prominent commercial site (or "entrepot") on a major north-south trade route.</p><br>
<p>Yizhar Hirschfeld accepted that Qumran was originally a Hasmonean fortress. Citing his work at ‘Ein Feshkha as a comparison, he suggested that the site at Qumran ultimately became an agriculturally-based, fortified trading station during the Herodian era.</p><br>
<p>Yizhak Magen and Yuval Peleg have focused their 10-year excavation at Qumran upon the vast water system at Qumran. They accept that the site was originally a "forward field fort", but argue that the site was repurposed as a pottery production plant, and that the water system was actually used to bring the clay-laced water into the site for the purpose of pottery production. Y. Magen and Y. Peleg proposed that Qumran was a pottery export site and said clay in pool 71 was used. (Samples of that clay have now been analysed, and they do not match tested Qumran pottery. "This information goes straight against" the Magen Peleg proposal, according to scientists J. Gunneweg and M. Balla. J. Michniewicz responding to previous analyses of Balla and Gunneweg, wrote, "Balla and Gunneweg&#39;s conclusions are corroborated neither by information about which elements were taken for statistical interpretation and which determined the division particularly strongly.... nor by the reference data or statistical computation".)</p><br>
<h3>Qumran as part of the Jordan valley</h3><br>
<p>Rachel Bar-Nathan rejects the claim that dishware found at Qumran shows any sectarian characteristic, and proposes that such pottery has also been found in varying quantities at Masada, Jericho and other sites in the region.</p><br>
<p>David Stacey argues that the settlement at Qumran is associated with the estate at Jericho. Due to the scarcity of year-round water at Qumran, he suggests that the site served as a seasonal tannery and pottery production facility.Stacey, David, "Some Archaeological Observations on the Aqueducts of Qumran", Dead Sea Discoveries 14/2 (2007): 222–43.</p><br>
<h3>Other issues</h3><br>
<p>Recent scientific evidence published by Ira Rabin, Oliver Hahn, Timo Wolff, Admir Masic, and Gisela Weinberg demonstrates that the ink from The Thanksgiving Scroll uses water taken from the Dead Sea and vicinity thereby demonstrating a link between the Dead Sea region and at least some of the scrolls.</p><br>
<p>Paleographer Ada Yardeni analysed and listed dozens of manuscripts from most of the caves (1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, and 11) that she assigns to a single scribe who she refers to as a "Qumran scribe". Yardeni cautions against claims of scribal hands being as many as 500 and claims that the manuscripts are a cross-section of then-current literature from many distant libraries, deposited in a short time.</p><br>
<p>Gila Kahila Bar-Gal determined that some of the skin used for the Dead Sea scrolls came from the Nubian ibex, whose range did not include Jerusalem, but includes Mount Hermon and the Golan Heights, the Negev highlands and the western shore of the Dead Sea.</p><br>
<h2>Archaeological site</h2><br>
<p>Enewetak Atoll  is a large coral atoll of 40 islands in the Pacific Ocean and with its 850 people forms a legislative district of the Ralik Chain of the Marshall Islands. With a land area total less than 5.85 km&sup2, it&#39;s not higher than 5 metres and surrounds a deep central lagoon, 80 km in circumference. It is the second-westernmost atoll of the Ralik Chain and is 305 km west from Bikini Atoll.</p><br>
<p>Nuclear testing by the US totaling more than 30 megatons of TNT took place during the cold war; in 1977–1980, a concrete dome (the Runit Dome) was built on Runit Island to deposit radioactive soil and debris.</p><br>
<p>The Runit Dome is deteriorating and could be breached by a typhoon, though the sediments in the lagoon are even more radioactive than those which are contained.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>The USA government referred to the atoll as "Eniwetok" until 1974, when it changed its official spelling to "Enewetak" (along with many other Marshall Islands place names, to more properly reflect their pronunciation by the Marshall Islanders).</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Enewetak Atoll formed atop a seamount. The seamount was formed in the late Cretaceous. This seamount is now about 4,600 ft below sea level. It is made of basalt, and its depth is due to a general subsidence of the entire region and not because of erosion.</p><br>
<p>Enewetak has a mean elevation above sea level of 10 ft.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Humans have inhabited the atoll since about 1,000 B.C.</p><br>
<p>The first European visitor to Enewetak, Spanish explorer Alvaro de Saavedra, arrived on 10 October 1529. He called the island "Los Jardines" (The Gardens). In 1794 sailors aboard the British merchant sloop Walpole called the islands "Brown&#39;s Range" (thus the Japanese name "Brown Atoll"). It was visited by about a dozen ships before the establishment of the German colony of the Marshall Islands in 1885. With the rest of the Marshalls, Enewetak was captured by the Imperial Japanese Navy in 1914 during World War I and mandated to the Empire of Japan by the League of Nations in 1920. The Japanese administered the island under the South Pacific Mandate, but mostly left affairs in hands of traditional local leaders until the start of World War II. The atoll, together with other part of Marshall Islands located to the west of 164°E, was placed under the governance of Pohnpei district during the Japanese administration period, and is different from rest of Marshall Islands.</p><br>
<p>In November 1942, the Japanese built an airfield on Engebi Island. As they used it only for refueling planes between Truk and islands to the east, no aviation personnel were stationed there and the island had only token defenses. When the Gilberts fell to the United States, the Imperial Japanese Army assigned defense of the atoll to the 1st Amphibious Brigade, formed from the 3rd Independent Garrison, which had previously been stationed in Manchukuo. The 1st Amphibious Brigade arrived on January 4, 1944. Some 2,586 of its 3,940 men were left to defend Eniwetok Atoll, supplemented by aviation personnel, civilian employees, and laborers. However, they were unable to finish the fortifications before the American attack came in February. During the ensuing Battle of Eniwetok, the Americans captured Enewetak in a five-day amphibious operation. Fighting mainly took place on Engebi Islet, site of the most important Japanese installation, although some combat occurred on the main islet of Enewetak itself and on Parry Island, where there was a Japanese seaplane base.</p><br>
<p>Following its capture, the anchorage at Enewetak became a major forward base for the USA Navy. The daily average of ships present during the first half of July 1944 was 488; during the second half of July the daily average number of ships at Enewetak was 283. In 1950, John C. Woods, who executed the Nazi war criminals convicted at the Nuremberg Trials, was accidentally electrocuted here.</p><br>
<p>After the end of World War II, Enewetak came under the control of the United States as part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands until the independence of the Marshall Islands in 1986. During its tenure, the United States evacuated the local residents many times, often involuntarily. The atoll was used for nuclear testing as part of the Pacific Proving Grounds. Before testing commenced, the USA exhumed the bodies of United States servicemen killed in the Battle of Enewetak and returned them to the United States to be re-buried by their families. Forty-three nuclear tests were fired at Enewetak from 1948 to 1958.</p><br>
<p>The first hydrogen bomb test, code-named Ivy Mike, occurred in late 1952 as part of Operation Ivy; it vaporized the islet of Elugelab. This test included B-17 Flying Fortress drones to fly through the radioactive cloud to test onboard samples. B-17 mother ships controlled the drones while flying within visual distance of them. In all 16 to 20 B-17s took part in this operation, of which half were controlling aircraft and half were drones. To examine the explosion clouds of the nuclear bombs in 1957/58 several rockets (mostly from rockoons) were launched. One USAF airman was lost at sea during the tests.</p><br>
<p>A radiological survey of Enewetak was conducted from 1972 to 1973. In 1977, the United States military began decontamination of Enewetak and other islands. During the three-year, $100 million cleanup process, the military mixed more than 111,000 cubic yards of contaminated soil and debris from the islands with Portland cement and buried it in an atomic blast crater on the northern end of the atoll&#39;s Runit Island. The material was placed in the 30 ft deep, 350 ft wide crater created by the May 5, 1958, "Cactus" nuclear weapons test. A dome composed of 358 concrete panels, each 18 in thick, was constructed over the material. The final cost of the cleanup project was $239 million. The United States government declared the southern and western islands in the atoll safe for habitation in 1980, and residents of Enewetak returned that same year.</p><br>
<p>Section 177 of the 1983 Compact of Free Association between the governments of the United States and the Marshall Islands establishes a process for Marshallese to make a claim against the United States government as a result of damage and injury caused by nuclear testing. That same year, an agreement was signed to implement Section 177 which established a $150 million trust fund. The fund was intended to generate $18 million a year, which would be payable to claimants on an agreed-upon schedule. If the $18 million a year generated by the fund was not enough to cover claims, the principal of the fund could be used. A Marshall Islands Nuclear Claims Tribunal was established to adjudicate claims. In 2000, the tribunal made a compensation award to the people of Enewetak consisting of $107.8 million for environmental restoration; $244 million in damages to cover economic losses caused by loss of access and use of the atoll; and $34 million for hardship and suffering. In addition, as of the end of 2008, another $96.658 million in individual damage awards were made. Only $73.526 million of the individual claims award has been paid, however, and no new awards were made between the end of 2008 and May 2010. Due to stock market losses, payments rates that have outstripped fund income, and other issues, the fund was nearly exhausted as of May 2010 and unable to make any additional awards or payments. A lawsuit by Marshallese arguing that "changed circumstances" made Nuclear Claims Tribunal unable to make just compensation was dismissed by the Supreme Court of the United States in April 2010.</p><br>
<p>The 2000 environmental restoration award included funds for additional cleanup of radioactivity on Enewetak. Rather than scrape the topsoil off, replace it with clean topsoil, and create another radioactive waste repository dome at some site on the atoll (a project estimated to cost $947 million), most areas still contaminated on Enewetak were treated with potassium. Soil that could not be effectively treated for human use was removed and used as fill for a causeway connecting the two main islands of the atoll (Enewetak and Parry). The cost of the potassium decontamination project was $103.3 million.</p><br>
<p>It is projected that the majority of the atoll will be fit for human habitation by the year 2026–2027 after nuclear decay, de-contamination and environmental remediation efforts create sufficient dose reductions. However, in November 2017, the Australian Broadcasting Corporation reported that rising sea levels caused by climate change are seeping inside the dome, causing radioactive material to leak out.</p><br>
<h2>Eniwetok Airfield</h2><br>
<p>Men from the 110th Naval Construction Battalion arrived on Eniwetok between 21 and 27 February 1944 and began clearing the island for construction of a bomber airfield. A 6,800 ft by 400 ft runway with taxiways and supporting facilities was built. The first plane landed on 11 March. By 5 April the first operational bombing mission was conducted.</p><br>
<p>The base was later named for Lieutenant John H. Stickell.</p><br>
<p>In mid-September 1944 operations at Wrigley Airfield on Engebi Island were transferred to Eniwetok.</p><br>
<p>US Navy and Marine units based at Eniwetok included:</p><br>
<p>VB-102 operating PB4Y-1s from 12–27 August 1944</p><br>
<p>VB-108 operating PB4Y-1s from 11 April-10 July 1944</p><br>
<p>VB-109 operating PB4Y-1s from 5 April-14 August 1944</p><br>
<p>VB-116 operating PB4Y-1s from 7 July-27 August 1944</p><br>
<p>VPB-121 operating PB4Y-1s from 1 March-3 July 1945</p><br>
<p>VPB-144 operating PV-2s from 27 June 1945 until September 1946</p><br>
<p>The airstrip is now abandoned and its surface partially covered by sand.</p><br>
<h2>Parry Island seaplane base</h2><br>
<p>The Imperial Japanese Navy had developed a seaplane base on Parry Island. Following its capture on 22 February, Seebees from the 110th Naval Construction Battalion expanded the base, building a coral-surfaced parking area and shops for minor aircraft and engine overhaul. A marine railway was installed on a Japanese pier and boat-repair shops were also erected.</p><br>
<p>US Navy and Marine units based at Parry Island included:</p><br>
<p>VP-13 operating PB2Y-3s from 26 February-22 June 1944</p><br>
<p>VP-16 operating PBM-3Ds from 7 June-1 August 1944</p><br>
<p>VP-21 operating PBM-3Ds from 19 August-17 October 1944 and from 15 July-11 September 1945</p><br>
<p>VP-23 operating PBY-5As from 20 August 1944 – 9 April 1945</p><br>
<p>VP-MS-6 operating PBM-5Es from 1 February 1948 in support of Operation Sandstone</p><br>
<p>VP-102 operating PB2Y-3s from 3 February-30 August 1944</p><br>
<p>VP-202 operating PBM-3Ds from 24 February-1 March 1944</p><br>
<p>VPB-19 operating PBM-3Ds from 2 November 1944 – 12 February 1945 and 6 March 1945-January 1946</p><br>
<p>VPB-22 operating PBM-3Ds from 10 October-30 November 1944 and from 25 June-7 August 1945</p><br>
<h2>List of nuclear tests at Eniwetok</h2><br>
<h3>Summary</h3><br>
<h3>Operation Sandstone</h3><br>
<h3>Operation Greenhouse</h3><br>
<h3>Operation Ivy</h3><br>
<h3>Operation Castle</h3><br>
<h3>Operation Redwing</h3><br>
<h3>Operation Hardtack I</h3><br>
<p>Lake Burtnieks  is the fourth largest lake in Latvia. It is shallow with an average depth of 2.9 m. The lake bed is mainly sandy, in places a little muddy. In the southeast part of the lake there is Devoniansandstone rock. The lake has 17 species of fish, such as minnows, salmon, chubs, eels, and pike, and there are areas for duck hunting. The banks are shallow and sandy, but along the southern coast, waves have carved sandstone cliffs. After the regulation of the Salaca river in 1929, the lake level dropped by a metre, and many of the exposed shallows grew covered with reeds and algae. The lake contains three islands with a total area of 14,000 m². The lake lies entirely within the Northern Vidzeme Biosphere Reserve. Small streams from Latvia and Estonia; the Aunupīte, Bauņupīte, Briedes upe, Dūres upe, Ēķinupe, Rūjas upe, and Sedas upe flow into the lake. Lake Burtnieks is the source of 95 km long Salaca river, which flows out of the northwest corner into the Gulf of Riga. In ancient times, the lake was known as Astijärv or Aster, when northern Vidzeme was inhabited by the Livonian people. The lake is a major setting of the Latvian national epic Lāčplēsis, and appears in many Latvian folklore stories. A few small villages cling to the coast today, the largest of which is Burtnieki.</p><br>
<p>Elephant hotel redirects here. For the National Historic Landmark located in Somers, New York, see Elephant Hotel.</p><br>
<p>Lucy the Elephant is a six-story elephant-shaped example of novelty architecture, constructed of wood and tin sheeting in 1881 by James V. Lafferty in Margate City, New Jersey, two miles (3.2 km) south of Atlantic City. Originally named Elephant Bazaar, Lucy was built to promote real estate sales and attract tourists. Today, Lucy is the oldest surviving roadside tourist attraction in America.</p><br>
<h2>History: 1881-1899</h2><br>
<h3>Patenting and Construction</h3><br>
<p>In 1881, the USA Patent Office granted James V. Lafferty a patent giving him the exclusive right to make, use or sell animal-shaped buildings for a duration of seventeen years. Lafferty funded the design and construction of his first elephant-shaped building at South Atlantic City, now called Margate. He employed Philadelphia architect William Free for the design, and it was constructed at a cost of $25,000 - $38,000.</p><br>
<p>Initially named Elephant Bazaar, the structure stands at 65 feet (19.7 m) in height, 60 feet (18.3 m) in length, and 18 feet (5.5 m) in width and weighs about 90 tons. It is listed as the 11th tallest statue in the United States. Lucy was constructed with nearly one million pieces of wood, and required 200 kegs of nails, 4 tons of bolts and iron bars; 12,000 square feet of tin covers the exterior. There are 22 windows placed throughout the structure.</p><br>
<h3>Early use and sale</h3><br>
<p>Originally, Lafferty brought potential real estate customers to view parcels of land from Lucys howdah (carriage). The howdah offers unique views of Margate, Atlantic Citys skyline, the beach, and the Atlantic Ocean and it serves as an observation deck for modern day visitors during tours.</p><br>
<p>The structure was sold to Anton Gertzen of Philadelphia in 1887 and remained in his family until 1970. Antons daughter-in-law, Sophia Gertzen, reportedly dubbed the structure "Lucy the Elephant" in 1902. The shape of Lucys head is characteristic of an Asian Elephant, and male elephants have tusks. Initially, the elephant was referred to as a male, but eventually became commonly known as a female.\</p><br>
<h2>History: 1900-1999</h2><br>
<p>Through the first half of the 20th century, Lucy served as a restaurant, business office, cottage, and tavern (the last closed by Prohibition). The building was depicted on many souvenir postcards, often referred to as "The Elephant Hotel of Atlantic City." (The actual hotel was in a nearby building, not inside the elephant.)</p><br>
<p>Save Lucy Committee - By the 1960s, Lucy had fallen into disrepair and was scheduled for demolition. In 1969, Edwin T. Carpenter and a group of Margate citizens formed the Margate Civic Association, which later became the Save Lucy Committee under Josephine Harron and Sylvia Carpenter. They were given a 30-day deadline to move the edifice or pay for its demolition. Various fund-raising events, the most successful a door-to-door canvass by volunteers, raised money.</p><br>
<p>In 1970, the building was moved about 100 yards to the west-southwest and a bit inward from the shoreline and completely refurbished. The buildings original wooden frame was buttressed new steel, and the deteriorated howdah was replaced with a replica. A plug of green glass set into the howdah platform refracts light into Lucys interior.</p><br>
<p>In 1972, Lucy appeared in the movie The King of Marvin Gardens, starring Jack Nicholson and Bruce Dern.</p><br>
<p>In 1976, Lucy was designated a National Historic Landmark.</p><br>
<p>In 1980, Lucy can be briefly seen in the opening of the five time Oscar nominated film, Atlantic City, starring Burt Lancaster and Susan Sarandon</p><br>
<p>In 1983, Lucy is shown on a postcard with a picture in the opening credits of the film, National Lampoon&#39;s Vacation.</p><br>
<p>In 1986, Lucy appeared on an episode of Mister Rogers&#39; Neighborhood. Mr. (Fred) Rogers was shown taking a short tour of Lucy.</p><br>
<h2>History: 2000-present</h2><br>
<p>Every July 20, the buildings birthday is celebrated with childrens games and much fanfare.</p><br>
<p>The Jardin the Paris Elephant, a real-life large elephant structure inspired by “Elephantine Colossus”, (a larger version of Lucy, built by Lafferty in 1885 on Coney Island), is featured as the location of the boudoir of Nicole Kidmans character in the 2001 film Moulin Rouge</p><br>
<p>In 2006, The television series, Weird USA, shown on The History Channel featured Lucy in an episode.</p><br>
<p>In 2006, Lucy was struck by lightning, blackening the tips of the tusks.</p><br>
<p>In November, 2006, the building was prominently featured in an advertisement for Proformance Insurance.</p><br>
<p>Lucy was featured in the 2009 television show Life After People, which illustrated how the environment would take over the structure without people to maintain Lucy.</p><br>
<p>In a 2011 episode of Boardwalk Empire, which takes place mostly in Atlantic City, Agent Van Alden mentions "a hotel shaped like an elephant" among the local attractions.</p><br>
<p>In October, 2012, Hurricane Sandy made landfall near Margate. Lucy remained unscathed, although part of the surge reached the building&#39;s toes and a small booth in the parking lot was blown over.</p><br>
<p>Lucy was featured in the 2012 book, Stay Close by Harlan Coben.</p><br>
<p>On June 14, 2014, The Travel Channel&#39;s Monumental Mysteries featured Lucy the Elephant in an episode.</p><br>
<p>April 18, 2015: Lucy was featured in the Bill Griffith daily comic strip "Zippy the Pinhead".</p><br>
<p>In 2015, Lucy was featured in the opening credits of a remake of the film Vacation, similar to the original 1983 movie.</p><br>
<p>On July 23, 2016, Lucy announced her candidacy for President of the United States at a celebration for her 135th birthday.</p><br>
<h3>Other structures by Lafferty</h3><br>
<p>Lafferty built two other elephant-shaped buildings, though neither survives. The Elephantine Colossus or Elephant Hotel, at Coney Island amusement park in Brooklyn, New York, stood 122 feet (37.2 m) tall, approximately twice the size of Lucy, with seven floors of rooms, and legs 60 feet in circumference. It held a cigar store in one leg and a diorama in another, hotel rooms within the elephant proper, and an observation area at the top with panoramic sea views. It burned down in 1896. Another, officially named Light of Asia (dubbed Old Jumbo by locals) and slightly smaller than Lucy, opened in Cape May in 1884, but was not successful and torn down within 15 years.</p><br>
<p>The Cathedral Church of Saint Peter and Saint Paul in the City and Diocese of Washington, commonly known as Washington National Cathedral, is a cathedral of the Episcopal Church located in Washington, D.C., the capital of the United States. The structure is of Neo-Gothic design closely modeled on English Gothic style of the late fourteenth century. It is both the second-largest church building in the United States, and the fourth-tallest structure in Washington, D.C. The cathedral is the seat of both the Presiding Bishop of the Episcopal Church, Michael Bruce Curry, and the Bishop of the Diocese of Washington, Mariann Edgar Budde. In 2009, nearly 400,000 visitors toured the structure. Average attendance at Sunday services in 2009 was 1,667, the highest of all domestic parishes in the Episcopal Church that year.</p><br>
<p>The Protestant Episcopal Cathedral Foundation, under the first seven Bishops of Washington, erected the cathedral under a charter passed by the United States Congress on January 6, 1893. Construction began on September 29, 1907, when the foundation stone was laid in the presence of President Theodore Roosevelt and a crowd of more than 20,000, and ended 83 years later when the "final finial" was placed in the presence of President George H. W. Bush in 1990. Decorative work, such as carvings and statuary, is ongoing as of 2011. The Foundation is the legal entity of which all institutions on the Cathedral Close are a part; its corporate staff provides services for the institutions to help enable their missions, conducts work of the Foundation itself that is not done by the other entities, and serves as staff for the Board of Trustees.</p><br>
<p>The Cathedral stands at Massachusetts and Wisconsin Avenues in the northwest quadrant of Washington. It is an associate member of the recently organized inter-denominational Washington Theological Consortium. It is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. In 2007, it was ranked third on the List of America&#39;s Favorite Architecture by the American Institute of Architects.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Construction</h3><br>
<p>In 1792, Pierre LEnfants "Plan of the Federal City" set aside land for a "great church for national purposes." The National Portrait Gallery now occupies that site. In 1891, a meeting was held to renew plans for a national cathedral. On January 6, 1893, the Protestant Episcopal Cathedral Foundation of the District of Columbia was granted a charter from Congress to establish the cathedral. The 52nd United States Congress declared in the act to incorporate the Protestant Episcopal Cathedral Foundation of the District of Columbia that the "said corporation is hereby empowered to establish and maintain within the District of Columbia a cathedral and institutions of learning for the promotion of religion and education and charity." The commanding site on Mount Saint Alban was chosen. Henry Yates Satterlee, first Episcopal Bishop of the Diocese of Washington, chose George Frederick Bodley, Britain&#39;s leading Anglican church architect, as the head architect. Henry Vaughan was selected supervising architect.</p><br>
<p>Construction started September 29, 1907, with a ceremonial address by President Theodore Roosevelt and the laying of the cornerstone. In 1912, Bethlehem Chapel opened for services in the unfinished cathedral, which have continued daily ever since. When construction of the cathedral resumed after a brief hiatus for World War I, both Bodley and Vaughan had died. Gen. John J. Pershing led fundraising efforts for the church after World War I. American architect Philip Hubert Frohman took over the design of the cathedral and was thenceforth designated the principal architect. Funding for the National Cathedral has come entirely from private sources. Maintenance and upkeep continue to rely entirely upon private support.</p><br>
<h3>National House of Prayer</h3><br>
<p>The United States Congress has designated the "Washington National Cathedral" as the "National House of Prayer." During World War II, monthly services were held there "on behalf of a united people in a time of emergency." Before and since, the structure has hosted other major events, both religious and secular, that have drawn the attention of the American people, as well as tourists from around the world.</p><br>
<h2>Major events</h2><br>
<h3>Major services</h3><br>
<p>State funerals for three American Presidents have been held at the cathedral:</p><br>
<p>34th President Dwight D. Eisenhower (1969): Eisenhower lay in repose at the cathedral before lying in state</p><br>
<p>State funeral of the 40th President, Ronald Reagan (2004)</p><br>
<p>State funeral of the 38th President, Gerald Ford (2007)</p><br>
<p>Memorial services were also held for the following former presidents:</p><br>
<p>(29th) Warren G. Harding</p><br>
<p>(27th) William Howard Taft</p><br>
<p>(30th) Calvin Coolidge</p><br>
<p>(33rd) Harry S. Truman</p><br>
<p>(37th) Richard Nixon</p><br>
<p>(38th) Gerald Ford.</p><br>
<p>Presidential prayer services were held the day after the inaugurations for the following USA Commander-in-Chiefs:</p><br>
<p>32nd President Franklin D. Roosevelt in January 1937</p><br>
<p>40th President Ronald Reagan in 1985</p><br>
<p>41st President George H. W. Bush in 1989</p><br>
<p>43rd President George W. Bush in 2001 and 2005</p><br>
<p>44th President Barack Obama in 2009 and 2013</p><br>
<p>45th President Donald Trump in 2017</p><br>
<p>Other events include:</p><br>
<p>Funeral for former first lady Edith Bolling Galt Wilson (1961)</p><br>
<p>Memorial service for former first lady Eleanor Roosevelt (1962)</p><br>
<p>Memorial service for the casualties of the Vietnam War on November 14, 1982</p><br>
<p>Public funeral for Chief of Naval Operations, United States Navy, Admiral Jeremy Michael Boorda (1996)</p><br>
<p>Funeral for USA Secretary of Commerce Ronald Brown (1996)</p><br>
<p>Funeral for USA Ambassador to France Pamela Harriman (1997)</p><br>
<p>Funeral for Washington Post newspaper publisher Katharine Graham (2001)</p><br>
<p>Memorial service for the victims of the September 11, 2001 attacks</p><br>
<p>Special evensong for the victims of the Virginia Tech massacre</p><br>
<p>Funeral for educator and national civil rights leader Dorothy Height (2010)</p><br>
<p>Memorial service for NASA astronaut and first person on the Moon Neil Armstrong (2012)</p><br>
<p>Funeral for USA Senator Daniel Inouye of Hawaii, President Pro Tempore of the Senate, and Congressional Medal of Honor recipient (2012)</p><br>
<p>Memorial service for former South African President and anti-apartheid activist Nelson Mandela (2014)</p><br>
<p>High school graduation ceremonies for the St. Albans School (Washington, D.C.) and the National Cathedral School</p><br>
<p>Interfaith service of Prayer and Remembrance: The Fifteenth Anniversary of the September 11, 2001 attacks, Sunday September 11, 2016</p><br>
<p>It was from Washington National Cathedral&#39;s "Canterbury Pulpit" that the Reverend Martin Luther King, Jr. delivered the final Sunday sermon of his life on March 31, 1968, just a few days before his assassination in April 1968. A memorial service for King was held at the cathedral later the same week.</p><br>
<h3>2011 earthquake</h3><br>
<p>The cathedral was damaged in August 2011 during the Virginia earthquake. Finial stones on several pinnacles broke off, and several pinnacles twisted out of alignment or collapsed entirely. Some gargoyles and other carvings were damaged, and a hole was punched through the metal-clad roof by falling masonry. Cracks also appeared in the flying buttresses surrounding the apse. Inside, initial inspections revealed less damage, with some mortar joints loose or falling out. The cathedral, which had no earthquake insurance, was essentially leaderless and struggled to cope with the cost of the damage.</p><br>
<p>Washington National Cathedral closed from August 24 to November 7, 2011, At that time, estimates of the cost of the damage were about $25 million.</p><br>
<p>Identifying the full extent of the damage and construction planning and studies over the next two years consumed another $2.5 million. In 2011, the cathedral received a $700,000.00 preservation work matching grant from the Save America&#39;s Treasures program, a public-private partnership operated by the nonprofit National Trust for Historic Preservation. The program, which is federally funded, required the cathedral to match the grant dollar-for-dollar with private funds and use the money solely for preservation work. Whether the provision of such aid violates the First Amendment, on the ground that frees up, for religious work, funds that otherwise would have been spent for the restoration, historically has been a controversial topic.</p><br>
<p>The Reverend Canon Gary R. Hall was chosen to be the 10th dean of Washington National Cathedral in August 2012.</p><br>
<p>Although fundraising to repair the damage began soon after the earthquake, it took the cathedral three years to raise the $15 million to complete the first phase of repairs. In August 2013, the cost of the repairs was re-estimated at $26 million. About $10 million had already been raised by this date to pay for the repairs, half of that coming from the Lilly Endowment. The cathedral began charging a $10.00 admission fee for tourists in January 2014, and started renting out its worship and other spaces to outside groups to raise cash. The cathedral also transformed the Herb Cottage (its old baptistry building adjacent to the cathedral) into a for-profit coffeehouse operated by the Open City café chain.</p><br>
<p>Phase I of the restoration, which cost $10 million,</p><br>
<p>In June 2015, Washington National Cathedral leaders said the church needed $200 million, which would both complete repairs and establish a foundation to give the cathedral financial stability. The cathedral began working on a capital fundraising campaign, which The New York Times said was one of the largest ever by an American religious institution, to begin in 2018 or 2019. Rev. Hall said that the cathedral also planned to reopen its continuing education college and its Center for Prayer and Pilgrimage (a space on the cathedral&#39;s crypt level dedicated to prayer, meditation, and devotional practice). After three years of deficit spending, however, the cathedral also announced additional cuts to music programs to balance its budget.</p><br>
<h3>Lee-Jackson stained glass windows</h3><br>
<p>In June 2016, after an examination by a five-person task force it was announced that two Confederate battle flag images would be removed from stained glass windows commemorating the lives of Confederate generals Robert E. Lee and Stonewall Jackson. The windows were installed in 1953 after lobbying by the United Daughters of the Confederacy. In its report, the task force wrote that it "is unanimous in its decision that the windows provide a catalyst for honest discussions about race and the legacy of slavery and for addressing the uncomfortable and too often avoided issues of race in America. Moreover, the windows serve as a profound witness to the Cathedral&#39;s own complex history in relationship to race."</p><br>
<p>On September 6, 2017, the Cathedral, in a statement signed by the Right Rev. Mariann Edgar Budde, Bishop of the Episcopal Diocese of Washington, the Very Rev. Randolph Marshall Hollerith, Dean of the Cathedral, and John Donoghue, Chair of the Cathedral Chapter, announced its decision to deconsecrate and remove the stained glass windows honoring Lee and Jackson.</p><br>
<h2>Financial concerns</h2><br>
<p>In January 2003, the Reverend Nathan D. Baxter, dean of the cathedral, announced his retirement effective from June 30, 2003. Baxter had led the cathedral since 1991. After an 18-month search, Samuel T. Lloyd III was named dean and began his tenure on April 23, 2005. Lloyd was charged with helping to enlarge the churchs congregation and make the cathedral a center for Christian thought and spiritual life. Using a $15 million bequest the cathedral received in 2000, Lloyd rapidly expanded the cathedrals programming. Meanwhile, the cathedral deferred maintenance and declined to make needed repairs. In early 2008, the National Cathedral Association, the church&#39;s fundraising donor network, was disbanded after cathedral leaders concluded that the building was "finished" and it was no longer necessary to raise significant funds for construction.</p><br>
<p>The 2008–2009 Great Recession hit the cathedral hard. By June 2010, the cathedral cut its budget from $27 million to $13 million (more than half), outsourced the operation of its gift shop, shut its greenhouse, and ceased operation of a college that had provided Episcopal clergy nationwide with continuing theological education. The cathedral also laid off 100 of its 170 staff members (about 60 percent of the total), including its art conservator and its liturgist (who researched and advocated the use of liturgies at the cathedral). It also significantly cut back on programming, music performances, and classes. To help stabilize its finances, the cathedral began an $11 million fundraising campaign and used $2.5 million of its $50 million endowment to plug budget holes. The National Cathedral Association was recreated as well.</p><br>
<p>In June 2010, the cathedral announced that it was exploring the sale of its rare book collection, the value of which was estimated to be several million dollars. It sold a number of books to a private collector in 2011 for $857,000.00 and in 2013 donated most of the remaining collection to Virginia Theological Seminary.</p><br>
<p>As the economic downturn continued, a report by cathedral staff identified $30 million in needed maintenance and repairs at Washington National Cathedral. Among the problems were cracked and missing mortar in the oldest sections of the building; broken HVAC, mechanical, and plumbing systems throughout the structure; extensive preservation needs; and a main organ in disrepair. Repointing the building was estimated to cost at least $5 million, while organ repair was set at $15 million.</p><br>
<p>In July 2011, Lloyd announced his resignation, effective in September.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>Its final design shows a mix of influences from the various Gothic architectural styles of the Middle Ages, identifiable in its pointed arches, flying buttresses, a variety of ceiling vaulting, stained-glass windows and carved decorations in stone, and by its three similar towers, two on the west front and one surmounting the crossing.</p><br>
<p>Washington National Cathedral consists of a long, narrow rectangular mass formed by a nine-bay nave with wide side aisles and a five-bay chancel, intersected by a six bay transept. Above the crossing, rising 91 m (301 ft) above the ground, is the Gloria in Excelsis Tower; its top, at 206 m (676 ft) above sea level, is the highest point in Washington. The Pilgrim Observation Gallery—which occupies a space about 3/4ths of the way up in the west-end towers—provides sweeping views of the city. In total, the cathedral is 115 m (375 ft) above sea level. Unique in North America, the central tower has two full sets of bells—a 53-bell carillon and a 10-bell peal for change ringing; the change bells are rung by members of the Washington Ringing Society. The cathedral sits on a landscaped 57 acre plot on Mount Saint Alban. The one-story porch projecting from the south transept has a large portal with a carved tympanum. This portal is approached by the Pilgrim Steps, a long flight of steps 12 m (40 ft) wide.</p><br>
<p>Most of the building is constructed using a buff-colored Indiana limestone over a traditional masonry core. Structural, load-bearing steel is limited to the roof&#39;s trusses (traditionally built of timber); concrete is used significantly in the support structures for bells of the central tower, and the floors in the west towers.</p><br>
<p>The pulpit was carved out of stones from Canterbury Cathedral; Glastonbury Abbey provided stone for the bishops formal seat, the cathedra. The high altar, the Jerusalem Altar, is made from stones quarried at Solomons Quarry near Jerusalem, reputedly where the stones for Solomon&#39;s Temple were quarried. In the floor directly in front of that altar are set ten stones from the Chapel of Moses on Mount Sinai, representing the Ten Commandments as a foundation for the Jerusalem Altar.</p><br>
<p>There are many other works of art including over two hundred stained glass windows, the most familiar of which may be the Space Window, honoring mankinds landing on the Moon, which includes a fragment of lunar rock at its center; the rock was presented at the dedication service on July 21, 1974, the fifth anniversary of the Apollo 11 mission. Extensive wrought iron adorns the building, much of it the work of Samuel Yellin. A substantial gate of forged iron by Albert Paley was installed on the north side of the crypt level in 2008. Intricate woodcarving, wall-sized murals and mosaics, and monumental cast bronze gates can also be found. Most of the interior decorative elements have Christian symbolism, in reference to the churchs Episcopal roots, but the cathedral is filled with memorials to persons or events of national significance: statues of Washington and Lincoln, state seals embedded in the marble floor of the narthex, state flags that hang along the nave, stained glass commemorating events like the Lewis and Clark expedition and the raising of the American flag at Iwo Jima.</p><br>
<p>The cathedral was built with several intentional "flaws" in keeping with an apocryphal medieval custom that sought to illustrate that only God can be perfect. Artistically speaking, these flaws (which often come in the form of intentional asymmetries) draw the observer&#39;s focus to the sacred geometry as well as compensate for visual distortions, a practice that has been used since the Pyramids and the Parthenon. Architecturally, it is thought that if the main aisle of the cathedral where it meets the cross section were not tilted slightly off its axis, a person who looked straight down the aisle could experience a slight visual distortion, making the building seem shorter than it is, much like looking down railroad tracks. The architects designed the crypt chapels in Norman, Romanesque, and Transitional styles predating the Gothic, as though the cathedral had been built as a successor to earlier churches, a common occurrence in European cathedrals.</p><br>
<p>Numerous grotesques and gargoyles adorn the exterior, most of them designed by the carvers; one of the more famous of these is a caricature of then-master carver Roger Morigi on the north exterior of the nave. There were also two competitions held for the public to provide designs to supplement those of the carvers. The second of these produced the famous Darth Vader Grotesque which is high on the northwest tower, sculpted by Jay Hall Carpenter and carved by Patrick J. Plunkett.</p><br>
<p>The west facade follows an iconographic program of the creation of the world rather than that of the Last Judgement as was traditional in medieval churches. All of the sculptural work was designed by Frederick Hart and features tympanum carvings of the creation of the sun and moon over the outer doors and the creation of man over the center. Hart also sculpted the three statues of Adam and Saints Peter and Paul. The west doors are cast bronze rather than wrought iron. The west rose window, often used as a trademark of the cathedral, was designed by Rowan leCompte and is an abstract depiction of the creation of light. LeCompte, who also designed the clerestory windows and the mosaics in the Resurrection Chapel, chose a nonrepresentational design because he feared that a figural window could fail to be seen adequately from the great distance to the nave.</p><br>
<p>The cathedral contains a basement, which was intentionally flooded during the Cuban missile crisis to provide emergency drinking water in the event of a nuclear war.</p><br>
<h3>Architects</h3><br>
<p>The cathedrals master plan was designed by George Frederick Bodley, a highly regarded British Gothic Revival architect of the late-19th and early-20th centuries, and was influenced by Canterbury. Landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted, Jr. contributed a landscaping plan for the cathedral close and Nellie B. Allen designed a knot garden for the Bishops Garden. After Bodley died in 1907, his partner Henry Vaughan revised the original design, but work stopped during World War I and Vaughan died in 1917. When work resumed, the chapter hired New York architecture firm Frohman, Robb and Little to execute the building. Philip Hubert Frohman, who had designed his first fully functional home at the age of 14 and received his architectural degree at the age of 16, and his partners worked to perfect Bodleys vision, adding the carillon section of the central tower, enlarging the west façade, and making numerous smaller changes. Ralph Adams Cram was hired to supervise Frohman, because of his experience with the Cathedral of St. John the Divine in New York City, but Cram insisted on so many major changes to the original design that Frohman convinced the Cathedral Chapter to fire him. By Frohmans death in 1972, the final plans had been completed and the building was finished accordingly.</p><br>
<h3>Images of architectural details</h3><br>
<h2>Leadership and funding</h2><br>
<p>The cathedral is both the episcopal seat of the Bishop of Washington (currently the Right Reverend Mariann Edgar Budde) and the primatial seat of the Presiding Bishop of the Episcopal Church (currently the Most Reverend Michael Curry). Budde was elected by the Diocese of Washington in June 2011, to replace Bishop John Bryson Chane; upon her confirmation in November 2011 she became the ninth bishop of the diocese and the first woman to fill the role.</p><br>
<p>The National Cathedral Association (NCA) seeks to raise and provide funds for and promote the Washington National Cathedral. Across the United States, it has more than 14,000 members, more than 88 percent of whom live outside the Washington area, and who are divided into committees by state. Visitors to the cathedral provide another significant source of funds, through donations and group touring fees. Every year, each state has a state day at the cathedral, on which that state is recognized by name in the prayers. Over a span of about four years, each state is further recognized at a Major State Day, at which time those who live in the state are encouraged to make a pilgrimage to the cathedral and dignitaries from the state are invited to speak. American state flags were displayed in the nave until 2007; currently the display of the state flags alternates throughout the year with the display of liturgical banners hung on the pillars, reflecting the seasons of the Church year.</p><br>
<p>The budget, $27 million in 2008, was trimmed to $13 million in 2010. Staff was reduced from 170 to 70. There was an endowment of $50 million.</p><br>
<h3>List of deans</h3><br>
<p>In May 2016, Randolph Marshall Hollerith was named as the next Dean of the Cathedral. Hollerith comes to the National Cathedral from St. James Episcopal Church (Richmond, Virginia), where he was rector from 2000–2016.</p><br>
<p>Former deans:</p><br>
<p>Alfred Harding (de facto; 1909–1916)</p><br>
<p>George C. F. Bratenahl (1916–1936)</p><br>
<p>Noble C. Powell (1937–1941)</p><br>
<p>ZeBarney T. Phillips (1941–1942)</p><br>
<p>John W. Suter (1944–1950)</p><br>
<p>Francis B. Sayre, Jr. (1951–1978)</p><br>
<p>John T. Walker (1978–1989; simultaneously bishop)</p><br>
<p>Nathan D. Baxter (1992–2003)</p><br>
<p>Samuel T. Lloyd III (2005–2011)</p><br>
<p>Gary R. Hall (2012–2015)</p><br>
<h2>Worship</h2><br>
<p>The worship department is, like the cathedral itself, rooted in the doctrine and practice of the Episcopal Church, and based in the Book of Common Prayer. Three services are held each weekday, including the daily Eucharist. Sunday through Thursday, the Cathedral Choirs sing Evensong. The forty-minute service is attended by roughly fifty to seventy-five people (more on Sunday). Three services of the Eucharist are held on Sunday, along with Choral Evensong.</p><br>
<p>The cathedral also has been a temporary home to several congregations, including a Jewish synagogue and an Eastern Orthodox community. It has also been the site for several ecumenical and/or interfaith services. In October 2005, at the cathedral, the Rev. Nancy Wilson was consecrated and installed as Moderator (Denominational Executive) of the Metropolitan Community Church, by its founding Moderator, the Rev. Dr. Troy Perry.</p><br>
<p>Each Christmas, the cathedral holds special services, which are broadcast to the world. The service of lessons and carols is distributed by Public Radio International. Christmas at Washington National Cathedral is a live television broadcast of the 9 a.m. Eucharist on Christmas Day. It is produced by Allbritton Communications and is shown on national affiliates in most cities around the United States. Some affiliates broadcast the service at noon. The Christmas service at the Cathedral was broadcast to the nation on television from 1953 until 2010 and is still webcast live from the Cathedral&#39;s homepage.</p><br>
<h2>Music</h2><br>
<p>The Washington National Cathedral Choir of Men and Boys, founded in 1909, is one of very few cathedral choirs of men and boys in the United States with an affiliated school, in the English choir tradition. The 18–22 boys singing treble are of ages 8–14 and attend St. Albans School, the Cathedral school for boys, on vocal scholarships.</p><br>
<p>In 1997, the Cathedral Choir of Men and Girls was formed by Bruce Neswick, using the same men as the choir of the men and boys. The Choir consists of middle and high school girls attending the National Cathedral School on vocal scholarships. The two choirs currently share service duties and occasionally collaborate.</p><br>
<p>Both choirs have recently recorded several CDs, including a Christmas album; a USA premiere recording of Ståle Kleiberg&#39;s Requiem for the Victims of Nazi Persecution; and a patriotic album, America the Beautiful.</p><br>
<p>The choirs rehearse separately every weekday morning in a graded class incorporated into their school schedule. The choristers sing Evensong five days a week (the Boys Choir on Tuesdays and Thursdays and the Girls Choir on Mondays and Wednesdays). The choirs alternate Sunday worship duties, singing both morning Eucharist and afternoon Evensong when they are on call. The choirs also sing for numerous state and national events. The choirs are also featured annually on Christmas at Washington National Cathedral, broadcast nationally on Christmas Day.</p><br>
<p>The Great Organ was installed by the Ernest M. Skinner & Son Organ Company in 1938. The original instrument consisted of approximately 8,400 pipes. The instrument was enlarged by the Aeolian-Skinner Organ Company in 1963 and again between 1970 and 1975, during which time more than half of the original instrument was removed. The present instrument consists of 189 ranks and 10,647 pipes. It is the largest organ in the city of Washington and one of the 20 largest organs in the world.</p><br>
<p>Specifications:</p><br>
<p>Michael McCarthy is the Director of Music, Benjamin Straley is the Cathedral Organist and Associate Director of Music, and Jeremy Filsell is the Artist-in-Residence. The carillonneur is Edward M. Nassor. Former organists and choirmasters include Edgar Priest, Robert George Barrow, Paul Callaway, Richard Wayne Dirksen, Douglas Major, Bruce Neswick, James Litton, Erik Wm. Suter, and Scott Dettra.</p><br>
<p>The resident symphonic chorus of Washington National Cathedral is the Cathedral Choral Society.</p><br>
<p>The cathedral is unique in North America in having both a carillon and a set of change ringing bells.</p><br>
<p>The ring of 10 bells (tenor in D) are hung in the English style for full circle ringing. All ten were cast in 1962 by Mears & Stainbank (now known as The Whitechapel Bell Foundry) of London, England.</p><br>
<p>The carillon has 53 bells ranging from 17 lb to 24,000 lb and was manufactured by John Taylor & Co of Loughborough, England in 1963. The bells are hung dead, that is rigidly fixed, and are struck on the inside by hammers activated from the keyboard.</p><br>
<h2>Burials</h2><br>
<p>Several notable American citizens are buried in Washington National Cathedral and its columbarium:</p><br>
<p>Larz Anderson, businessman, diplomat</p><br>
<p>Thomas John Claggett, first Bishop of the Episcopal Diocese of Maryland</p><br>
<p>William Forman Creighton, fifth Bishop of Washington</p><br>
<p>Joseph Edward Davies (ashes), diplomat, presidential adviser. He gave a stained-glass window in the Cathedral in honor of his mother, Rachel Davies (Rahel o Fôn)</p><br>
<p>George Dewey, United States Navy admiral</p><br>
<p>Angus Dun (ashes), fourth Bishop of Washington</p><br>
<p>Philip Frohman (ashes), cathedral architect, following the death of Bodley</p><br>
<p>George A. Garrett, diplomat, first United States Ambassador to Ireland</p><br>
<p>Julia Dent Cantacuzène Spiransky-Grant, granddaughter of President Ulysses S. Grant</p><br>
<p>Alfred Harding, second Bishop of Washington</p><br>
<p>Cordell Hull, United States Secretary of State</p><br>
<p>Helen Keller (ashes), author, lecturer, advocate for the blind and deaf</p><br>
<p>A.S. Mike Monroney (ashes), USA representative, senator</p><br>
<p>Norman Prince, fighter pilot, member of the Lafayette Escadrille flying corps</p><br>
<p>Henry Yates Satterlee, first Bishop of Washington</p><br>
<p>Francis Bowes Sayre, Jr. (ashes), dean of the cathedral and grandson of President Woodrow Wilson, also interred there</p><br>
<p>John Wesley Snyder (US Cabinet Secretary), Secretary of the Treasury in the Truman administration</p><br>
<p>Leo Sowerby (ashes), composer, church musician</p><br>
<p>Anne Sullivan (ashes), tutor and companion to Helen Keller, first woman interred here</p><br>
<p>Stuart Symington, USA senator, presidential candidate</p><br>
<p>Henry Vaughan, architect, associate of Bodley</p><br>
<p>John Thomas Walker, sixth Bishop of Washington</p><br>
<p>Isabel Weld Perkins, author, wife of Larz Anderson</p><br>
<p>Edith Wilson, second wife of Woodrow Wilson and First Lady of the United States</p><br>
<p>Woodrow Wilson, 28th President of the United States. Wilson&#39;s tomb includes variants on the Seal of the President of the United States and the coat of arms of Princeton University. Wilson is the only American president buried in the District of Columbia.</p><br>
<p>Doi Inthanon  is the highest mountain in Thailand. It is in Chom Thong District, Chiang Mai Province. This mountain is an ultra prominent peak, known in the past as Doi Luang  or Doi Ang Ka, meaning the "crows pond top". Near the mountains base was a pond where many crows gathered. The name Doi Inthanon was given in honour of King Inthawichayanon, one of the last kings of Chiang Mai, who was concerned about the forests in the north and tried to preserve them. He ordered that after his death his remains be interred at Doi Luang, which was then renamed in his honour.</p><br>
<p>Today, the summit of Doi Inthanon is a popular tourist destination for both foreign and Thai tourists, with a peak of 12,000 visitors visiting the summit on New Year&#39;s Day. (In 2014, they left behind 36 tonnes of rubbish). In addition to a range of tourist facilities on the summit, there is also a Royal Thai Air Force weather radar station at the summit and the Thai National Observatory (TNO) at km44.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Doi Inthanon is the highest peak of the Inthanon Range (ทิวเขาอินทนนท์) of the Thanon Thong Chai Range, a subrange of the Shan Hills in the Thai highlands stretching southwards from the Daen Lao Range. This range, the southwesternmost of the Shan Highland system, separates the Salween watershed from the Mekong watershed. Other high peaks of the Loi Lar Mountain Range are Doi Luang Chiang Dao (2,175 m), Doi Pui (1,685 m), and Doi Suthep (1,601 m).</p><br>
<p>In 1954, the forests around Doi Inthanon were conserved, creating Doi Inthanon National Park, as one of the original 14 national parks of Thailand. This park now covers 482.4 km² and spreads from the lowlands at 800 m elevation up to the peak at 2,565 m. Given the varied climatic and ecological areas regions, the park supports a range of animal species, including over 360 bird species.</p><br>
<p>On the lower slopes of Doi Inthanon, near the Karen hill tribe village, Ban Sop Had, are the Wachirathan waterfalls (น้ำตกวชิรธาร), where the Wachirathan (lit. "Diamond Creek") tumbles over a granite escarpment.18.541790&deg; latitude, 98.599247&deg; longitude</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>The climate is typically tropical and fairly cool on the summit of Doi Inthanon. In winter the average temperature is 6 °C (43 °F) in January and temperatures can sometimes drop below 0 °C (32 °F). From March to June, temperatures are pleasant especially at higher altitudes. The rainy season runs from April to November, sometimes it rains more than 2 hours per day.</p><br>
<h2>The two chedis</h2><br>
<p>On the main road to the summit of Doi Inthanon stand two adjacent chedis, one called Naphamethinidon (นภเมทินีดล), meaning "by the strength of the land and air", and the other, Naphaphonphumisiri (นภพลภูมิสิริ), meaning "being the strength of the air and the grace of the land". These temples were built to honour the 60th birthday anniversary of King Bhumibol Adulyadej in 1987, and the 60th birthday anniversary of Queen Sirikit in 1992, respectively.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>Geologically the mountain is a granite batholith in a north-south oriented mountain range. The second-highest peak of this range is Doi Hua Mot Luang at 2,340 m.</p><br>
<h2>Doi Inthanon places</h2><br>
<p>The "Great Holy Relics Pagodas", Phramahathat Napamathanidol and Phramahathat Napaphol Bhumisiri</p><br>
<p>Kio Mae Pan Nature Trail</p><br>
<p>The Inthanon Royal Project Research Station: The agricultural station was a King Bhumibol Adulyadej project to help eliminate opium cultivation. It contains a rhododendron garden, and greenhouses for growing ferns, flowering plants, and vegetables.</p><br>
<p>Woodlawn Cemetery is one of the largest cemeteries in New York City and is a designated National Historic Landmark. Located in Woodlawn, Bronx, New York City, it has the character of a rural cemetery. Woodlawn Cemetery opened during the Civil War in 1863, in what was then southern Westchester County, in an area that was annexed to New York City in 1874. It is notable in part as the final resting place of some great figures in the American arts, such as authors Countee Cullen and Herman Melville, and musicians Irving Berlin, Miles Davis, Duke Ellington, W. C. Handy, and Max Roach. Holly Woodlawn, after changing her name to such, falsely told people she was the heiress to Woodlawn Cemetery.</p><br>
<h2>Locale and grounds</h2><br>
<p>The Cemetery covers more than 400 acre In 2011, Woodlawn Cemetery was designated a National Historic Landmark, since it shows the transition from the rural cemetery popular at the time of its establishment to the more orderly 20th-century cemetery style.</p><br>
<p>As of 2007, plot prices at Woodlawn were reported as $200 per square foot, $4,800 for a gravesite for two, and up to $1.5 million for land to build a family mausoleum.</p><br>
<h2>Burials moved to Woodlawn</h2><br>
<p>Woodlawn was the destination for many human remains disinterred from cemeteries in more densely populated parts of New York City:</p><br>
<p>Rutgers Street church graves were moved to Woodlawn. Most graves were re-interred with a stated date of December 20, 1866 into the Rutgers Plot, lots 147-170.</p><br>
<p>West Farms Dutch Reformed Church, at Boone Avenue and 172nd Street in The Bronx, had most of its graves moved to Woodlawn Cemetery in 1867 and interred in the Rutgers Plot, Lots 214-221.</p><br>
<p>Bensonia Cemetery, also known as "Morrisania Cemetery", was originally a Native American burial ground. The graves were moved to Woodlawn Cemetery with a stated date of April 21, 1871 and re-interred into Lot 3. Public School #138, in The Bronx, is now on the site.</p><br>
<p>Harlem Church Yard cemetery internees were moved to Woodlawn. Most graves were re-interred with a stated date of August 1, 1871 into the Sycamore Plot, lots 1061–1080.</p><br>
<p>Nagle Cemetery remains were moved in November–December 1926 and reinterred in Primrose Plot, Lot 16150. Identities of those interred are apparently unknown.</p><br>
<p>The Dyckman-Nagle Burying Ground, West 212th Street at 9th Avenue, in the Borough of Manhattan, was originally established in 1677 and originally contained 417 plots. In 1905, the remains, with the exception of Staats Morris Dyckman and his family, were removed. By 1927, the Dyckman graves were finally moved to Woodlawn Cemetery. The former Dutch colonial-era cemetery is now a 207th Street subway train yard.</p><br>
<p>The fictional cemetery of the Synagogue in Brooklyn in the film Once Upon a Time in America is actually located here, renamed "Riverdale Cemetery".</p><br>
<h2>Notable burials</h2><br>
<h3>A</h3><br>
<p>Charles H. Adams, politician</p><br>
<p>Anthony Allaire</p><br>
<p>Vivian Beaumont Allen</p><br>
<p>Vincent Alo</p><br>
<p>John Murray Anderson</p><br>
<p>Alexander Archipenko</p><br>
<p>Herman Ossian Armour</p><br>
<p>Hugh D. Auchincloss</p><br>
<p>James C. Auchincloss</p><br>
<h3>B</h3><br>
<p>Benjamin Babbitt</p><br>
<p>Jules Bache</p><br>
<p>James Anthony Bailey</p><br>
<p>Joseph C. Baldwin</p><br>
<p>Billy Bang</p><br>
<p>Diana Barrymore</p><br>
<p>Nora Bayes</p><br>
<p>Charles Becker</p><br>
<p>Digby Bell</p><br>
<p>Laura Joyce Bell</p><br>
<p>Alva Belmont</p><br>
<p>Oliver Belmont</p><br>
<p>Irving Berlin, songwriter, musician, and bandleader</p><br>
<p>Maximilian Berlitz</p><br>
<p>Samuel Rossiter Betts</p><br>
<p>Amelia Bingham</p><br>
<p>Ausburn Birdsall</p><br>
<p>Elizabeth Bisland</p><br>
<p>Cornelius Bliss</p><br>
<p>Nellie Bly</p><br>
<p>Coralie Blythe</p><br>
<p>George Boldt</p><br>
<p>Robert W. Bonynge</p><br>
<p>Emma Booth, involved with the Salvation Army</p><br>
<p>Gail Borden</p><br>
<p>Bostwick family</p><br>
<p>Anne Lynch Botta</p><br>
<p>William V. Brady, Mayor of New York City</p><br>
<p>Boris Brasol</p><br>
<p>Herbert Brenon</p><br>
<p>Bricktop</p><br>
<p>Benjamin Bristow</p><br>
<p>Addison Brown</p><br>
<p>Henry Bruckner, Bronx Borough President</p><br>
<p>Charles Waldron Buckley</p><br>
<p>Ralph Bunche, United Nations official and diplomat</p><br>
<p>Richard Busteed</p><br>
<p>Benjamin Franklin Butler (1795-1858), lawyer</p><br>
<p>Charles Butler</p><br>
<h3>C</h3><br>
<p>Hervey C. Calkin</p><br>
<p>Harry Carey</p><br>
<p>Charles A. Carleton</p><br>
<p>Vernon and Irene Castle, well-known husband & wife dancing team, movie stars</p><br>
<p>Carrie Chapman Catt</p><br>
<p>Alfred Chapin</p><br>
<p>John Wilbur Chapman, Evangelist, Author, Hymn Writer</p><br>
<p>Robert Chesebrough</p><br>
<p>Joseph Hodges Choate, lawyer, diplomat</p><br>
<p>Bobby Clark (comedian)</p><br>
<p>Horace F. Clark</p><br>
<p>Huguette Clark</p><br>
<p>William A. Clark</p><br>
<p>Henry Clews</p><br>
<p>George M. Cohan - bronze statue in center of Times Square</p><br>
<p>Barron Collier</p><br>
<p>Ida Conquest</p><br>
<p>Austin Corbin</p><br>
<p>Ricardo Cortez</p><br>
<p>Lotta Crabtree</p><br>
<p>William Nelson Cromwell</p><br>
<p>Celia Cruz</p><br>
<p>Countee Cullen</p><br>
<p>Frederick Kingsbury Curtis</p><br>
<p>Elizabeth Jane Cochran</p><br>
<h3>D</h3><br>
<p>Jess Dandy</p><br>
<p>Leopold Damrosch</p><br>
<p>Miles Davis</p><br>
<p>Clarence Day</p><br>
<p>Zachariah Deas</p><br>
<p>Cornelius H. DeLamater</p><br>
<p>George Washington De Long</p><br>
<p>Rafael Díez de la Cortina y Olaeta, linguist</p><br>
<p>Sidney Dillon</p><br>
<p>E.L. Doctorow</p><br>
<p>Charles Cleveland Dodge, Brigadier General (youngest), American Civil War</p><br>
<p>William E. Dodge</p><br>
<p>Richard Dorson</p><br>
<p>Vernon Duke</p><br>
<p>Paul Du Chaillu</p><br>
<p>Finley Peter Dunne</p><br>
<p>William C. Durant</p><br>
<h3>E</h3><br>
<p>Gertrude Ederle, record-setting swimmer</p><br>
<p>Gus Edwards</p><br>
<p>Duke Ellington</p><br>
<p>Albert Ellis</p><br>
<h3>F</h3><br>
<p>Benjamin L. Fairchild</p><br>
<p>David Farragut</p><br>
<p>Edoardo Ferrari-Fontana</p><br>
<p>Bud Fisher</p><br>
<p>Clara Fisher</p><br>
<p>Rudolph Fisher</p><br>
<p>Clyde Fitch</p><br>
<p>Geraldine Fitzgerald</p><br>
<p>James Montgomery Flagg</p><br>
<p>Joe Foy Baseball player</p><br>
<p>Frankie Frisch</p><br>
<p>Antoinette Perry Frueauff</p><br>
<h3>G</h3><br>
<p>Tommy Gagliano</p><br>
<p>Lindley Miller Garrison</p><br>
<p>Francis Patrick Garvan</p><br>
<p>John Warne Gates</p><br>
<p>Charles Sidney Gilpin</p><br>
<p>Thomas F. Gilroy, Mayor of New York City</p><br>
<p>Ambrosio José Gonzales</p><br>
<p>Jay Gould</p><br>
<p>Archibald Gracie</p><br>
<p>Archibald Gracie III, Confederate General</p><br>
<p>Archibald Gracie IV Titanic survivor</p><br>
<p>Charles K. Graham, Union General & Civil Engineer</p><br>
<p>George Bird Grinnell, anthropologist, historian, naturalist, and writer.</p><br>
<p>Lawrence Grossmith, English actor</p><br>
<p>Simon Guggenheim</p><br>
<h3>H</h3><br>
<p>Oscar Hammerstein, Sr.</p><br>
<p>Lionel Hampton</p><br>
<p>W. C. Handy</p><br>
<p>Edward Harkness, philanthropist</p><br>
<p>Lamon V. Harkness, businessman, stockholder in Standard Oil, yachtsman</p><br>
<p>William L. Harkness</p><br>
<p>Charles K. Harris</p><br>
<p>William Frederick Havemeyer, businessman, Mayor of New York City</p><br>
<p>Coleman Hawkins</p><br>
<p>Millicent Hearst</p><br>
<p>August Heckscher</p><br>
<p>John Held, Jr.</p><br>
<p>Victor Herbert</p><br>
<p>Adelaide Herrmann</p><br>
<p>Alexander Herrmann</p><br>
<p>Christian Archibald Herter</p><br>
<p>John D. Hertz, businessman, thoroughbred racehorse owner and breeder</p><br>
<p>Jim Holdsworth, baseball player</p><br>
<p>Richard Hudnut</p><br>
<p>Charles Evans Hughes</p><br>
<p>Harold Hunter, skateboarder</p><br>
<p>Arabella Huntington</p><br>
<p>Collis P. Huntington</p><br>
<p>Barbara Hutton</p><br>
<p>Henry Baldwin Hyde</p><br>
<h3>J</h3><br>
<p>Milt Jackson</p><br>
<p>Illinois Jacquet</p><br>
<p>Fanny Janauschek</p><br>
<p>Bumpy Johnson</p><br>
<p>Augustus D. Juilliard</p><br>
<h3>K</h3><br>
<p>Hermann Jakob Knapp</p><br>
<p>Felix Knight</p><br>
<p>Pedro Knight</p><br>
<p>Fritz Kreisler</p><br>
<h3>L</h3><br>
<p>Fiorello La Guardia</p><br>
<p>Scott La Rock</p><br>
<p>Daniel S. Lamont</p><br>
<p>Walter W. Law</p><br>
<p>Canada Lee</p><br>
<p>Henry Lehman</p><br>
<p>Frank Leslie</p><br>
<p>J. C. Leyendecker, illustrator</p><br>
<p>Harold Lockwood</p><br>
<p>Frank Belknap Long</p><br>
<p>Mansfield Lovell, Confederate officer</p><br>
<p>August Guido Lüchow, restaurateur</p><br>
<p>George Platt Lynes</p><br>
<h3>M</h3><br>
<p>Rowland Macy</p><br>
<p>Martha Mansfield</p><br>
<p>Frankie Manning, dancer, instructor, and choreographer</p><br>
<p>Vito Marcantonio, politician</p><br>
<p>Dewey Markham</p><br>
<p>Alfred Erskine Marling</p><br>
<p>Louis Marx, toy merchant</p><br>
<p>Bat Masterson, lawman, writer</p><br>
<p>Victor Maurel</p><br>
<p>William McAdoo</p><br>
<p>Josiah Calvin McCracken</p><br>
<p>George A. McGuire</p><br>
<p>Jackie McLean, musician</p><br>
<p>George McManus, cartoonist</p><br>
<p>Marie Mattingly Meloney</p><br>
<p>Herman Melville, author</p><br>
<p>Dean Meminger</p><br>
<p>Mario Merola (1922–1987), lawyer, New York City Councilman, and Bronx County District Attorney</p><br>
<p>William P. Merrill</p><br>
<p>Cyrus Miller, lacrosse player</p><br>
<p>Gilbert Miller</p><br>
<p>Marilyn Miller</p><br>
<p>Florence Mills</p><br>
<p>John Purroy Mitchel, Mayor of New York City</p><br>
<p>John Bassett Moore</p><br>
<p>Paul Morton</p><br>
<p>Robert Moses, government official, planner, builder, and Parks Department Commissioner of New York City</p><br>
<h3>N</h3><br>
<p>Thomas Nast, political cartoonist</p><br>
<p>LeRoy Neiman, artist</p><br>
<p>Harold Nicholas</p><br>
<p>Ruth Rowland Nichols</p><br>
<p>Hideyo Noguchi</p><br>
<p>James W. Nye</p><br>
<h3>O</h3><br>
<p>Chauncey Olcott</p><br>
<p>Blanche Oelrichs</p><br>
<p>Hermann Oelrichs</p><br>
<p>William Butler Ogden</p><br>
<p>Joe "King" Oliver</p><br>
<h3>P</h3><br>
<p>Augustus G. Paine, Jr.</p><br>
<p>Felix Pappalardi</p><br>
<p>James Cash Penney</p><br>
<p>Antoinette Perry, actress, director and co-founder of the American Theatre Wing</p><br>
<p>Alex Pompez, African-American baseball executive</p><br>
<p>Generoso Pope</p><br>
<p>George B. Post</p><br>
<p>Otto Preminger, film director</p><br>
<p>Frederick Freeman Proctor, vaudeville impresario</p><br>
<p>Samuel I. Prime</p><br>
<p>Joseph Pulitzer, newspaper owner and founder of Pulitzer prize</p><br>
<p>Mihajlo Pupin</p><br>
<h3>R</h3><br>
<p>Charles Ranhofer</p><br>
<p>Norman B. Ream</p><br>
<p>Theodor Reik</p><br>
<p>Gaetano Reina</p><br>
<p>Lance Reventlow</p><br>
<p>Grantland Rice</p><br>
<p>Vincent Richards</p><br>
<p>Tex Rickard</p><br>
<p>Max Roach</p><br>
<p>Delmar "Barney" Roos</p><br>
<p>Ruth Rowland Nichols</p><br>
<p>Damon Runyon</p><br>
<h3>S</h3><br>
<p>Ruth Brown Snyder</p><br>
<p>Josef Stránský, Czech conductor, composer, and art collector</p><br>
<p>Isidor Straus- owner of Macy&#39;s Department Store, Democratic member of the 53rd Congress of the United States, victim of the sinking of the RMS Titanic</p><br>
<p>Elizabeth Cady Stanton, early women&#39;s rights activist</p><br>
<p>William Lafayette Strong, Mayor of New York City</p><br>
<h3>T</h3><br>
<p>Arthur Fitzwilliam Tait, artist</p><br>
<p>Jokichi Takamine</p><br>
<p>Clarice Taylor</p><br>
<p>Jerry Thomas, bartender</p><br>
<p>Olive Thomas</p><br>
<p>Lloyd Tilghman, Confederate General</p><br>
<p>Dan Topping</p><br>
<p>Henry Tremain, Union Brevet Brigadier General</p><br>
<h3>U</h3><br>
<p>Vladimir Ussachevsky</p><br>
<p>Samuel Untermyer</p><br>
<p>Gladys Unger</p><br>
<h3>V</h3><br>
<p>Abraham Van Buren</p><br>
<p>Robert Anderson Van Wyck, first Mayor of Greater New York City</p><br>
<p>Virginia Fair Vanderbilt</p><br>
<h3>W</h3><br>
<p>Madam C. J. Walker</p><br>
<p>Arthur Mellen Wellington</p><br>
<p>William Collins Whitney</p><br>
<p>Bert Williams</p><br>
<p>Frank Winfield Woolworth</p><br>
<h3>X, Y, Z</h3><br>
<h2>Image gallery</h2><br>
<p>Lake Winnipesaukee is the largest lake in the USA state of New Hampshire, located in the Lakes Region. It is approximately 21 mi long  and from 1 to 9 mi wide , covering 69 square miles&mdash;71 square miles when Paugus Bay is included&mdash;with a maximum depth of 212 ft. The center area of the lake is called The Broads.</p><br>
<p>The lake contains at least 258 islands, half of which are less than a quarter-acre in size, and is indented by several peninsulas, yielding a total shoreline of approximately 288 mi. The driving distance around the lake is 63 mi. It is 504 ft above sea level. Winnipesaukee is the third-largest lake in New England after Lake Champlain and Moosehead Lake.</p><br>
<p>Outflow is regulated by the Lakeport Dam in Lakeport, New Hampshire, on the Winnipesaukee River.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Lake Winnipesaukee has been a popular tourist destination for more than a century, particularly among residents seeking a safe haven from the summer heat of Boston and New York City. The Native American name Winnipesaukee (often spelled Winnipiseogee in earlier centuries ) means either "smile of the Great Spirit" or "beautiful water in a high place". At the outlet of the lake, the Winnipesaukee Indians, a subtribe of the Pennacook, lived and fished at a village called Acquadocton. Today, the site is called The Weirs, named for the weirs colonists discovered when first exploring the region.</p><br>
<p>Winnipesaukee is a glacial lake but an unusual one, since the last glaciation actually reversed the flow of its waters. Draining the central portion of New Hampshire, it once flowed southeast, leaving via what is now Alton Bay toward the Atlantic Ocean. When glacial debris blocked this path, flow was redirected westward through Paugus Bay into the Winnipesaukee River. The latter flows west from the lake and joins the Pemigewasset River in Franklin to form the Merrimack River, which flows south to Massachusetts and into the Atlantic.</p><br>
<p>Center Harbor witnessed the first intercollegiate sporting event in the United States, as Harvard defeated Yale by two lengths in the first Harvard–Yale Regatta on August 3, 1852. The outcome was repeated 100 years later when the schools celebrated the centennial of the race by again competing on Lake Winnipesaukee (Harvard winning by 2.7 seconds).</p><br>
<p>Lake Winnipesaukee was also where the eponymous Lake Winnipesaukee mystery stone was found.</p><br>
<h2>Cities and towns</h2><br>
<p>The communities that surround the lake, clockwise from the southernmost town, are:</p><br>
<p>Alton, the largest town by area in the Lakes Region.</p><br>
<p>Gilford, home to Gunstock Mountain Resort and Bank of New Hampshire Pavilion at Meadowbrook, a popular New Hampshire concert venue.</p><br>
<p>Laconia, the main commercial city on the lake (surrounding Paugus Bay). Included in Laconia is Weirs Beach, the largest public bathing area on Winnipesaukee. Every year Laconia is home to Bike Week, attracting tens of thousands of motorcyclists to the area.</p><br>
<p>Meredith, whose harbor lies on the northwestern reach of the lake.</p><br>
<p>Center Harbor, a small town in Belknap County which serves as the winter home for the MS Mount Washington.</p><br>
<p>Moultonborough, with its Castle in the Clouds, an estate atop a small mountain.</p><br>
<p>Tuftonboro, which contains the communities of Melvin Village and Mirror Lake.</p><br>
<p>Wolfeboro, which bills itself as the "Oldest Summer Resort in America".</p><br>
<h2>Divisions of the lake</h2><br>
<p>The lake consists of a wide, relatively open central region known as The Broads, surrounded by several large bays, as well as many smaller inlets.</p><br>
<p>The daytime speed limit for boats on the entire lake is 45 mph.</p><br>
<p>The main sections of the lake are:</p><br>
<h3>The Broads</h3><br>
<p>The Broads are a wide portion of Lake Winnipesaukee largely in Belknap County and extending slightly into Carroll County. It is a large island-free zone occupying the center of the lake. It was named after The Broads, in England.</p><br>
<p>Running along the main axis of the lake, the northwestern tip of The Broads is at the town of Center Harbor, while the southeastern end lies between the towns of Alton and Wolfeboro.</p><br>
<h3>Meredith Bay</h3><br>
<p>Meredith Bay lies at the western edge of Winnipesaukee. At the northern tip of Meredith Bay is the main village of the town of Meredith. Paugus Bay branches off to the south of Meredith Bay at Weirs Beach, near to where Meredith Bay joins the main body of the lake. Meredith Bay is separated from The Broads by a relatively narrow strait bordered by Governors Island to the south and Stonedam Island to the north. The northeastern shore of Meredith Bay is a long peninsula known as Meredith Neck.</p><br>
<h3>Paugus Bay</h3><br>
<p>Formerly a hydrologically distinct lake, Paugus Bay became joined to Winnipesaukee when the dam at Lakeport was constructed, raising the surface of Paugus Bay to be contiguous with Winnipesaukee. Paugus Bay joins the main lake in Meredith Bay, running south from a narrow channel connecting it to Meredith Bay. At the northern end of Paugus Bay, where it joins the main lake, is Weirs Beach, the largest and most visited public beach on the lake. At the other end is the village of Lakeport. Both Weirs Beach and Lakeport are villages within the city of Laconia. The eastern shore of the bay is closely followed by USA Route 3, and has numerous motels, hotels, inns, and bungalow complexes. The western shore is much less developed.</p><br>
<h3>Alton Bay</h3><br>
<p>Alton Bay is a narrow bay which runs due south from the southern corner of the main lake. It lies entirely within the town of Alton. The village of Alton Bay lies at the extreme southern tip.</p><br>
<h3>Wolfeboro Bay</h3><br>
<p>Wolfeboro Bay is a relatively small wide bay lying in the town of Wolfeboro, creating a small northerly bulge in the shoreline to the eastern edge of Winnipesaukee. A series of smaller lakes and streams connects Wolfeboro Bay to Lake Wentworth.</p><br>
<h3>Winter Harbor</h3><br>
<p>Winter Harbor is a Y-shaped bay with two branches, separated from The Broads by Wolfeboro Neck and Tuftonboro Neck. This part of the lake also borders the entrance to the Broads, the largest open area in the lake. Winter Harbor is surrounded by many quiet resort communities in the towns of Wolfeboro and Tuftonboro. A small stream connects Winter Harbor to Mirror Lake at the northern tip of the western branch. It also has panoramic views of the Belnap mountains and looks out toward Rattle Snake Island.</p><br>
<h3>Moultonborough Bay</h3><br>
<p>The longest bay on Winnipesaukee is Moultonborough Bay. It is connected to The Broads by some narrow straits running between a cluster of islands including Long Island (the largest island in the lake), Cow Island, Little Bear Island, Sandy Island, and dozens of smaller islands and islets. The 7 mi Moultonborough Neck separates the length of the bay from the main axis of the lake, and the Suissevale development in the town of Moultonborough is at the northern tip of the bay. Melvin Village, the main lakeside village of the town of Tuftonboro lies along the northeastern shore of the bay, closer to where it joins The Broads.</p><br>
<h2>Islands</h2><br>
<p>There are at least 258 natural islands on Lake Winnipesaukee that are at least 3 ft above lake level and contain vegetation, about 130 of which are over.25 acre in size. 26 of these are 25 acre or larger:</p><br>
<p>Long Island—1,186 acre</p><br>
<p>Bear Island—780 acre</p><br>
<p>Cow Island—522 acre</p><br>
<p>Governors Island—504 acre</p><br>
<p>Rattlesnake Island—368 acre</p><br>
<p>Welch Island—187 acre</p><br>
<p>Little Bear Island—143 acre</p><br>
<p>Stonedam Island—141 acre</p><br>
<p>Timber Island—136 acre</p><br>
<p>Sleepers Island—113 acre</p><br>
<p>Mark Island—102 acre</p><br>
<p>Black Island—90 acre</p><br>
<p>Barndoor Island—88 acre</p><br>
<p>Black Cat Island—75 acre</p><br>
<p>Pine Island—74 acre</p><br>
<p>Whortleberry Island—69 acre</p><br>
<p>Sandy Island—67 acre</p><br>
<p>Jolly Island—50 acre</p><br>
<p>Three Mile Island—47 acre</p><br>
<p>Round Island—43 acre</p><br>
<p>Lockes Island—42 acre</p><br>
<p>Diamond Island—37 acre</p><br>
<p>Dow Island—32 acre</p><br>
<p>Big Beaver Island—30 acre</p><br>
<p>Camp Island—28 acre</p><br>
<p>Mink Island—26 acre</p><br>
<p>Birch Island—25 acre</p><br>
<p>Six islands are connected to the mainland by bridges (Black Cat, Governors, Long, Oak, Christmas (or Plummers) in Paugus Bay, and Worcester), and another eight (Bear, Birch, Cow, East Bear, Jolly, Loon, Three Mile, and Sandy) are served by the USA mailboat M/V Sophie C.</p><br>
<h2>Lakes region</h2><br>
<p>Along with the rest of New Hampshire&#39;s Lakes Region, which also encompasses Lake Winnisquam, Lake Wentworth, Squam Lake and Newfound Lake, Winnipesaukee has been a vacation community for at least a century, particularly drawing people from the Boston region. The area is home to numerous summer theater troupes and offers a variety of land and water recreational activities. There are numerous hiking trails in and around the surrounding mountains, which include the Ossipee Mountains to the east, the Belknap Range to the west, and Red Hill to the north.</p><br>
<h2>Steamship Mount Washington and her successor</h2><br>
<p>The paddlesteamer, named after the highest of New Hampshire&#39;s White Mountains, was launched in spring 1872 to carry mail, goods, and passengers on Lake Winnipesaukee, under the flag of the Boston and Maine Railroad. With a hull length of 178 ft and a beam of 49 ft she appeared as a typical representative of the North American sidewheelers around the second half of the century and was the largest steamer on the lake at that time. The huge paddle wheels were driven by a single-cylinder steam engine of 450 hp at approximately 26 rpm. The power was transferred from the vertical single cylinder to the wheel shaft by the walking beam, high above the upper deck, oscillating in the frequency of the paddle wheels. Known as "The Mount", her kitchen and restaurant service became famous.</p><br>
<p>On December 23, 1939, a nearby railroad station caught fire from an overheated stove. The fire soon spread to the ship, tied at the dock, and destroyed it. Efforts to cut Mount Washington loose were to no avail as it was a time of extremely low water and the hull was stuck fast in the mud of the lake bottom. Soon after, a local company was formed to build a new ship. Since Europe was already at war, obtaining steel was impossible. Instead, they purchased an old sidewheel vessel on Lake Champlain: the Chateaugay, a 203 ft, iron-hulled sidewheeler that was being used as a club house for the Burlington yacht club. It was cut into sections and transported to Lake Winnipesaukee on rail cars. A new twin-screw vessel was designed for the hull being welded back together at Lakeport. Powered by two steam engines taken from another ocean-going yacht, the new MS Mount Washington made her maiden voyage on August 15, 1940.</p><br>
<p>Two years after her launch, the new Mount Washingtons engines were removed for use in a navy vessel during World War II. After the war, Mount Washington returned to the water. The ship was a success in the post-war tourist boom.</p><br>
<p>In 1982, Mount Washington was cut open and extended with an additional 20 ft hull section to add larger lounge and food service facilities. Still popular, she makes one or two round trips on the lake per day during the summer season, as well as numerous dinner dance cruises in the evenings.</p><br>
<h2>US mailboat M/V Sophie C</h2><br>
<p>The M/V Sophie C is the oldest, and one of only two currently operating, floating United States Postal Service post offices. Floating post office service was started on Lake Winnipesaukee in 1892, and currently delivers mail daily to eight of the lake&#39;s islands between June and September. As a floating post office, Sophie C delivers mail Monday-Saturday, sells postage, and collects and postmarks outgoing mail. Sophie C also operates as a sightseeing boat, carrying up to 125 people on her two cruises a day as she delivers mail, and sells ice cream and snacks to residents of the islands she serves.</p><br>
<h2>Seaplane base</h2><br>
<p>The Alton Bay Seaplane Base is a state-owned, public-use seaplane base in Alton Bay, the southeast arm of the lake. In the winter it is the only FAA-approved ice runway in the contiguous United States, conditions permitting.</p><br>
<h2>Weather and climate</h2><br>
<p>Average summertime on or next to the water brings days around 80 °F (26 °C), with overnight lows around 65 °F (18 °C). Less than one-half mile (800 m) away from the water, days can be warmer and nights cooler by several degrees. Summer&#39;s most extreme temperatures away from the water may be as high as 100 °F (38 °C) and as low as 50 °F (10 °C). A typical winter day brings a maximum of 28 °F (−2 °C) with overnight minimum around 15 °F (−9 °C). Typical wintertime extremes are 50 °F (10 °C) and −20 °F (−30 °C) but even greater extremes have been recorded nearby.</p><br>
<p>The water temperature typically reaches the upper 70s F (around 25 °C) in late July and cools into the 60s (around 18 °C) in September. Several days of hot, humid weather at the height of summer can bring the water temperature well above 80 °F (26 °C). It normally freezes during the last week of December. Ice thickness during a typical winter can be in excess of 18 in in many parts of the lake.</p><br>
<h2>Ice-Out</h2><br>
<p>Lake Winnipesaukee is known for its annual Ice-Out Contest, in which people try to guess the earliest date that the Mount Washington can safely leave her port in Center Harbor and motor to four other ports (Weirs Beach, Alton Bay, Wolfeboro, and Meredith). Since records began in 1851, ice-out has happened as early as March 18 and as late as May 12, although 90 percent of the time it is declared during April. This official ruling is made by David Emerson of Emerson Aviation.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture and the arts</h2><br>
<p>Thornton Wilder&#39;s 1938 Pulitzer Prize-winning play, Our Town, refers to Lake Winnipesaukee at the beginning of Act III.</p><br>
<p>In a Three Stooges 1940 short "No Census, No Feeling", the Stooges are census takers, and Curly answers a query about his birthplace with "Lake Winnipesaukee". When Moe asks him to spell it, he switches course, and says "Make it Lake Erie - I&#39;ve got an uncle there."</p><br>
<p>Some boating scenes from the 1981 Academy Award-winning film On Golden Pond were shot on the lake, though the main scenes were from nearby Squam Lake.</p><br>
<p>In 1982, composer Alan Hovhaness, who spent much of his childhood in New Hampshire, composed Lake Winnipesaukee, Op. 363, a sextet for flute, oboe, cello, two percussion, and piano.</p><br>
<p>The 1991 movie comedy What About Bob? was set at Lake Winnipesaukee, although the actual filming was done at Smith Mountain Lake in Virginia.</p><br>
<p>The 2006 comedy Click has a flashback depicting Adam Sandler as a kid playing on a beach on Lake Winnipesaukee.</p><br>
<p>In the debut of Adam Sandler&#39;s "Thanksgiving Song", on Saturday Night Live (November 21, 1992), the long-time New Hampshire resident sings, "I used to go to camp at Lake Winnipesaukee".</p><br>
<p>On The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon, host Jimmy Fallon and frequent guest Justin Timberlake have filmed a series of sketches set at a fictional "Camp Winnipesaukee".</p><br>
<p>The Boston Navy Yard, originally called the Charlestown Navy Yard and later Boston Naval Shipyard, was one of the oldest shipbuilding facilities in the United States Navy. Established in 1801, under the last year of the Federalist Party administration of second President John Adams,  and the recent establishment of the new USA Department of the Navy in 1798. After 175 years of vaunted military service, it was officially closed as an active naval installation on 1 July 1974, and the 30 acre property was transferred to the National Park Service of the USA Department of the Interior to be part of Boston National Historical Park. Enough of the yard remains in operation to support the anchored/moored exhibiting as a historical museum, the "USAS. Constitution"  of 1797, built as one of the original six heavy frigates for the revived American navy and oldest warship still commissioned in the United States Navy. The "USAS. Cassin Young , a 1943 World War II-era Fletcher-class destroyer serving as a museum ship, is also berthed here, and there is also a dock which serves as a stop on the MBTA Boat water transport system. Among local people in the area and the National Park Service, it is still known as the Charlestown Navy Yard.</p><br>
<p>The South Boston Naval Annex was located along the waterfront in South Boston, Massachusetts.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The earliest naval shipbuilding activities in Charlestown, Massachusetts across the Charles River and Boston harbor to the north from the city of Boston, began during the American Revolutionary War (1775-1783). The land for the Charlestown Navy Yard was purchased by the United States government in 1800 and the yard itself established shortly thereafter. The yard built the first USA ship of the line, "USS Independence", but was primarily a repair and storage facility until the 1890s, when it started to build steel ships for the "New Navy". By then, it was called the Boston Navy Yard.</p><br>
<p>On 24 June 1833, the staff and dignitaries including then Vice President Martin Van Buren, Secretary of War Lewis Cass, Secretary of the Navy Levi Woodbury, and many Massachusetts officials, witnessed "one of the great events of American naval history": the early United States frigate Constitution was inaugurating the first naval drydock in New England designed by prominent civil engineer Loammi Baldwin, Jr.</p><br>
<p>The ropewalk supplied cordage used in the Navy from the time it opened in 1837 until the Yard closed in 1975. After the Civil War (1861-1865), the Yard was downgraded to an Equipment and Recruit Facility.</p><br>
<p>In the late 1880s and 1890s, the Navy began expanding again bringing into service new modern steel hulled steam-powered warships and that brought new life to the Yard. In the first years of the 20th century, a second drydock was added. During World War II (1939/1941-1945), it worked to fix British Royal Navy warships and merchant transports damaged by the Nazi Germans when crossing the North Atlantic Ocean. On 27 September 1941—Liberty Fleet Day—Boston launched two destroyers, the USS Cowie and the USS Knight. Even before the USA entered the Second World War after the Pearl Harbor attack on December 7th, 1941, a month before in November, Boston was one of four United States naval shipyards selected to build Captain class frigates under the Lend-Lease military assistance program for the Royal Navy. Since the United States was at war when these ships were finally completed, some were later requisitioned and used by the United States Navy as destroyer escorts. In the post war period, the shipyard modified World War II ships for Cold War (1945-1991) service through Fleet Rehabilitation and Modernization (FRAM). The Korean War (1950-1953), and Vietnam War (1964-1975) did not bring much work to the Yard since it was so far from the fighting.</p><br>
<h2>Ships built at Boston Navy Yard</h2><br>
<p>1814: (90-gun ship of the line) War of 1812; Mexican–American War</p><br>
<p>1825: (18-gun sloop of war) Mexican–American War</p><br>
<p>1827: (20-gun sloop of war) Mexican–American War</p><br>
<p>1827: (24-gun sloop of war) Mexican–American War</p><br>
<p>1837: (22-gun sloop of war) Mexican–American War; American Civil War</p><br>
<p>1839: (16-gun sloop of war) American Civil War</p><br>
<p>1842: (50-gun frigate) Mexican–American War; Battle of Hampton Roads</p><br>
<p>1844: (22-gun sloop of war) Perry Expedition</p><br>
<p>1848: (74-gun ship of the line) American Civil War</p><br>
<p>1858: (22-gun sloop of war) Battle of Forts Jackson and St. Philip; Battle of Mobile Bay</p><br>
<p>1859: (5-gun sloop of war) American Civil War</p><br>
<p>1861: (10-gun sloop of war) Peninsula Campaign; Bahia incident</p><br>
<p>1861: (11-gun sloop of war) Sinking of USS Housatonic</p><br>
<p>1861: (side-wheel steam gunboat) Peninsula Campaign; First Battle of Fort Fisher; Second Battle of Fort Fisher</p><br>
<p>1862: (6-gun sloop of war) American Civil War</p><br>
<p>1862: (side-wheel steam gunboat) American Civil War</p><br>
<p>1862: (side-wheel steam gunboat) American Civil War</p><br>
<p>1863: (monitor) First Battle of Fort Fisher; Second Battle of Fort Fisher</p><br>
<p>1863: (gunboat) First Battle of Fort Fisher; Second Battle of Fort Fisher</p><br>
<p>1863: (gunboat) American Civil War</p><br>
<p>1863: (side-wheel steam gunboat)</p><br>
<p>1864: (frigate)</p><br>
<p>1865: (sloop of war)</p><br>
<p>1866: (sloop of war)</p><br>
<p>1867: (sloop of war)</p><br>
<p>1868: (sloop of war) Battle of Ganghwa</p><br>
<p>1876: (sloop of war) 1889 Apia cyclone</p><br>
<p>1916: (Combat stores ship) World War I; World War II</p><br>
<p>1919: (Fleet oiler) World War II</p><br>
<p>1920: (Fleet oiler) World War II</p><br>
<p>1921: (Fleet oiler) World War II</p><br>
<p>1934: (Farragut-class destroyer) Attack on Pearl Harbor; Battle of Savo Island; Battle of the Philippine Sea; Battle of Leyte Gulf</p><br>
<p>1935: (Farragut-class destroyer) Attack on Pearl Harbor; Battle of the Coral Sea; Battle of Midway; Battle of the Komandorski Islands; Battle of the Philippine Sea</p><br>
<p>1935: (Mahan-class destroyer) Attack on Pearl Harbor; Battle of the Philippine Sea</p><br>
<p>1935: (Mahan-class destroyer) Attack on Pearl Harbor; Battle of Midway; Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands; Operation Crossroads</p><br>
<p>1936: (Benham-class destroyer) Attack on Pearl Harbor</p><br>
<p>1936: (Benham-class destroyer) Attack on Pearl Harbor; Battle of Savo Island; Battle of Kolombangara; Battle off Cape Engaño; Operation Crossroads</p><br>
<p>1938: (Benham-class destroyer) Naval Battle of Casablanca; Operation Crossroads</p><br>
<p>1938: (Benham-class destroyer) Allied invasion of Sicily; Invasion of Salerno; Operation Crossroads</p><br>
<p>1939: (Sims-class destroyer) Guadalcanal Campaign</p><br>
<p>1939: (Sims-class destroyer) Naval Battle of Guadalcanal</p><br>
<p>1939: (Benson-class destroyer) Battle of the Atlantic; Operation Dragoon</p><br>
<p>1939: (Benson-class destroyer) Battle of the Atlantic</p><br>
<p>1940: (Gleaves-class destroyer) Doolittle Raid; Battle of Midway; Naval Battle of Guadalcanal; Battle of Kolombangara</p><br>
<p>1940: (Gleaves-class destroyer) Doolittle Raid</p><br>
<p>1940: (Gleaves-class destroyer) Naval Battle of Casablanca</p><br>
<p>1940: (Gleaves-class destroyer) invasion of Salerno; Battle for Leyte Gulf</p><br>
<p>1941: (Gleaves-class destroyer) Operation Torch; Normandy invasion; Operation Dragoon; Battle of Okinawa</p><br>
<p>1941: (Gleaves-class destroyer) Operation Torch; Normandy invasion; Operation Dragoon</p><br>
<p>1941: (Gleaves-class destroyer) Operation Torch; Allied invasion of Sicily</p><br>
<p>1941: (Gleaves-class destroyer) Operation Torch; Allied invasion of Sicily; Allied invasion of Italy</p><br>
<p>1941: (Gleaves-class destroyer) Operation Torch; Allied invasion of Sicily</p><br>
<p>1941: (Gleaves-class destroyer) Allied invasion of Sicily</p><br>
<p>1942: (Fletcher-class destroyer) Battle of the Philippine Sea; Battle of Iwo Jima; Battle of Okinawa</p><br>
<p>1942: (Fletcher-class destroyer) Battle of Iwo Jima; Battle of Okinawa</p><br>
<p>1942: (Fletcher-class destroyer) Battle of the Philippine Sea; Battle of Iwo Jima; Battle of Okinawa</p><br>
<p>1942: (Fletcher-class destroyer) Battle of the Philippine Sea; Battle of Iwo Jima; Battle of Okinawa</p><br>
<p>1942: (Fletcher-class destroyer) Battle of Surigao Strait; Battle of Iwo Jima; Battle of Okinawa</p><br>
<p>1942: (Fletcher-class destroyer) Battle of the Philippine Sea; Battle for Leyte Gulf</p><br>
<p>1942: (Fletcher-class destroyer) Battle of the Philippine Sea; Battle for Leyte Gulf</p><br>
<p>1942: (Fletcher-class destroyer) Philippines campaign; Battle of Iwo Jima; Battle of Okinawa</p><br>
<p>1943: (Fletcher-class destroyer) Philippines campaign; Battle of Iwo Jima; Battle of Okinawa</p><br>
<p>1943: (Fletcher-class destroyer) Philippines campaign</p><br>
<p>1943: (Fletcher-class destroyer) Battle of Surigao Strait; Battle of Iwo Jima; Battle of Okinawa</p><br>
<p>1943: (Fletcher-class destroyer) Battle of Leyte; Battle of Iwo Jima; Battle of Okinawa</p><br>
<p>1943: (Fletcher-class destroyer) Battle of Surigao Strait; Battle of Iwo Jima; Battle of Okinawa</p><br>
<p>1943: (Fletcher-class destroyer) Battle of Surigao Strait; Battle of Iwo Jima; Battle of Okinawa</p><br>
<p>1942: HMS (Captain-class frigate) shared credit for sinking U-757, U-1279, U-989 & U-1278</p><br>
<p>1942: HMS (Captain-class frigate) shared credit for sinking U-648, U-600 & U-636</p><br>
<p>1942: HMS (Captain-class frigate) Battle of the Atlantic</p><br>
<p>1942: HMS (Captain-class frigate) shared credit for sinking U-648 & U-600</p><br>
<p>1942: (Evarts-class destroyer escort) Battle of the Atlantic</p><br>
<p>1942: (Evarts-class destroyer escort) Battle of the Atlantic</p><br>
<p>1943: (Evarts-class destroyer escort) shared credit for sinking; Battle of Okinawa</p><br>
<p>1943: (Evarts-class destroyer escort) Pacific Theater of Operations</p><br>
<p>1943: (Evarts-class destroyer escort) Battle of Okinawa</p><br>
<p>1943: (Evarts-class destroyer escort) Battle of Okinawa</p><br>
<p>1943: (Evarts-class destroyer escort) Battle of Okinawa</p><br>
<p>1943: HMS (Captain-class frigate) shared credit for sinking U-1063</p><br>
<p>1943: (Evarts-class destroyer escort) Battle of Okinawa</p><br>
<p>1943: (Evarts-class destroyer escort) Battle of the Atlantic</p><br>
<p>1943: (Evarts-class destroyer escort) Battle of the Atlantic</p><br>
<p>1943: (Evarts-class destroyer escort) shared credit for sinking</p><br>
<p>1943: (Evarts-class destroyer escort) Pacific Theater of Operations</p><br>
<p>1943: (Evarts-class destroyer escort) Pacific Theater of Operations</p><br>
<p>1943: (Evarts-class destroyer escort) Pacific Theater of Operations</p><br>
<p>1943: (Evarts-class destroyer escort) Pacific Theater of Operations</p><br>
<p>1943: (Evarts-class destroyer escort) Pacific Theater of Operations</p><br>
<p>1943: (Evarts-class destroyer escort) Battle of Okinawa</p><br>
<p>1943: HMS (Captain-class frigate) Battle of the Atlantic</p><br>
<p>1943: HMS (Captain-class frigate) shared credit for sinking U-988 & U-214</p><br>
<p>1943: HMS (Captain-class frigate) Normandy Invasion</p><br>
<p>1943: HMS (Captain-class frigate) shared credit for sinking U-988</p><br>
<p>1943: HMS (Captain-class frigate) shared credit for sinking U-538</p><br>
<p>1943: HMS (Captain-class frigate) shared credit for sinking U-358</p><br>
<p>1943: HMS (Captain-class frigate) shared credit for sinking U-91 & U-358</p><br>
<p>1943: HMS (Captain-class frigate) Battle of the Atlantic</p><br>
<p>1943: HMS (Captain-class frigate) Battle of the Atlantic</p><br>
<p>1943: HMS (Captain-class frigate) Battle of the Atlantic</p><br>
<p>1943: HMS (Captain-class frigate) Battle of the Atlantic</p><br>
<p>1943: HMS (Captain-class frigate) shared credit for sinking U-91 & U-358</p><br>
<p>1943: HMS (Captain-class frigate) shared credit for sinking U-1172 & U-285</p><br>
<p>1943: HMS (Captain-class frigate) Battle of the Atlantic</p><br>
<p>1943: HMS (Captain-class frigate) Normandy Invasion</p><br>
<p>1943: HMS (Captain-class frigate) Normandy Invasion</p><br>
<p>1943: HMS (Captain-class frigate) shared credit for sinking U-445</p><br>
<p>1943: HMS (Captain-class frigate) Battle of the Atlantic</p><br>
<p>1943: HMS (Captain-class frigate) Battle of the Atlantic</p><br>
<p>1943: HMS (Captain-class frigate) Battle of the Atlantic</p><br>
<p>1943: HMS (Captain-class frigate) Battle of the Atlantic</p><br>
<p>1943: HMS (Captain-class frigate) Battle of the Atlantic</p><br>
<p>1943: HMS (Captain-class frigate) shared credit for sinking U-1051</p><br>
<p>1943: HMS (Captain-class frigate) Battle of the Atlantic</p><br>
<p>1943: HMS (Captain-class frigate) Battle of the Atlantic</p><br>
<p>1943: HMS (Captain-class frigate) Battle of the Atlantic</p><br>
<p>1943: (Evarts-class destroyer escort) Battle of the Atlantic</p><br>
<p>1943: (Evarts-class destroyer escort) Battle of the Atlantic</p><br>
<p>1943: (Evarts-class destroyer escort) Battle of the Atlantic</p><br>
<p>1943: (Evarts-class destroyer escort) Battle of the Atlantic</p><br>
<p>1943: (John C. Butler–class destroyer escort) rescued crew of the SS Andrea Doria</p><br>
<p>1943: (John C. Butler–class destroyer escort)</p><br>
<p>1943: (John C. Butler-class destroyer escort) Battle for Leyte Gulf; Battle of Okinawa</p><br>
<p>1943: (John C. Butler–class destroyer escort) Pacific Theater of Operations; Korean War</p><br>
<p>1943: (John C. Butler–class destroyer escort) Pacific Theater of Operations</p><br>
<p>1943: (John C. Butler–class destroyer escort) Pacific Theater of Operations</p><br>
<p>1943: (John C. Butler–class destroyer escort)</p><br>
<p>1943: (John C. Butler–class destroyer escort)</p><br>
<p>1945: (Casa Grande-class dock landing ship) Mercury-Redstone 2 recovery</p><br>
<p>1945: (Casa Grande-class dock landing ship)</p><br>
<p>1945: (Casa Grande-class dock landing ship) Korean War; Vietnam War</p><br>
<p>1945: (Casa Grande-class dock landing ship) Korean War; Vietnam War</p><br>
<p>1955: (John C. Butler–class destroyer escort)</p><br>
<p>1955: (John C. Butler–class destroyer escort)</p><br>
<h2>Current use</h2><br>
<p>The Yard closed after the Vietnam War. When ideas were floated for redevelopment of the yard, one popular idea was to have the yard turned into a construction yard for oil tankers. Ultimately, these plans fell through, and the site became part of the Boston National Historical Park. Its mission is, "to interpret the art and history of naval shipbuilding".</p><br>
<p>The Charlestown Navy Yard hosts many attractions. The fully commissioned and the museum ship are tied up at Pier 1 and open to the public. The Navy Yard also hosts the USS Constitution Museum. Dry Dock No. 1 is still used for ship maintenance for the Constitution and the Cassin Young. In May 2015, the Constitution entered the dry dock for three years of repairs.</p><br>
<p>The Yard is toward the north end of the Freedom Trail and is seen by thousands every year. The MBTA Boat stops at nearby Pier 4, providing easy visitor access to the Yard.</p><br>
<p>The campus of the MGH Institute of Health Professions occupies seven buildings in the Yard, including classroom, office, and clinical space.</p><br>
<p>Aldabra is the world&#39;s second-largest coral atoll. It is situated in the Aldabra Group of islands in the Indian Ocean that are part of the Outer Islands of the Seychelles, with a distance of 1,120 km  southwest of the capital, Victoria, on Mahé Island.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Historically, the name Aldabra was Al-Hadra or Al-Khadra (with several variants), given by Arab seafarers for "the atoll’s harsh, sun-baked environment&quot this name was included in the Portuguese maps of the 16th century. They had named the Indian Ocean as Bahr-el zanj. It was visited by Portuguese navigators in 1511. The islands were already known to the Persians and Arabs, from whom they got their name. In the middle of the 18th century, the atoll became a dependency of the French colony of Réunion, from where expeditions were made for the capture of the Aldabra giant tortoises. As there are no surface freshwater sources on Aldabra, the interests of the explorers (no proof of any explorer’s visit prior to 1742) was only to exploit the species of tortoise, turtle and fish, and not to inhabit the atoll. In 1810, with Mauritius, Réunion, the Seychelles and other islands, Aldabra passed into the possession of Great Britain. Réunion was later returned to France, and Mauritius gained possession of Aldabra as well as the rest of the Seychelles. The previous inhabitants were emigrants from the Seychelles.</p><br>
<p>Admiral W. J. L. Wharton of the British Navy landed in Aldabra in 1878 to conduct hydrographic surveys of the islands. In 1888, first settlement was established after the Concession was granted by the Seychelles authorities.</p><br>
<p>In the early 1800s, concessions given to individuals almost destroyed the forests and tortoise habitats in many islands in Seychelles; on Aldabra Atoll, in view of its remoteness and rugged topography, only small areas of forests were cleared for agricultural operations (mostly coconut plantations) but the tortoises were intensely captured for meat and trade. However, James Spurs, who had the concession of the atoll, was responsible initially for saving the tortoises on the atoll when he banned killing them in 1891.</p><br>
<p>Following World War II, exploitation of Aldabra for commercial use came to an end and restrictions were even imposed on the number of people who could stay on the islands; this number was fixed at 200 at a time. Introduction of invasive species was banned, faunal species were protected under law, and active research on the ecology and biodiversity of the atoll was undertaken by the Royal Society of London from the middle of the 1970s.</p><br>
<p>Aldabra, along with Desroches and Farquhar, was part of the British Indian Ocean Territory from 1965 until Seychelles independence in 1976. In the 1960s, as a part of their Ocean Island Policy, and to support East of Suez commitments, the British government considered establishing a RAF base on the island and invited the United States to help fund the project in return for shared use of the facility and a settlement of 11 million dollars. Simultaneously (mid-1960s), the British Broadcasting Corporation became interested in Aldabra as a possible site to locate transmitters with which to rebroadcast the BBC Overseas Service (BBC) into the African mainland. The BBC mounted a fact-finding expedition (Expedition Turtle) to assess its suitability for this purpose. The BBC were dependent upon the RAF for developing the atoll as without this their own ambitions would not have been feasible. After an international protest by scientists (known as the Aldabra Affair), however, the military plans were abandoned and the atoll instead received full protection. The "Environmental lobbyists" under the leadership of Julian Huxley, with the support of the MP Tam Dalyell, got the British venture torpedoed. In 1966, the Minister of Defence Dennis Healy of the British Government had observed that: "As I understand it, the island of Aldabra is inhabited - like Her Majestys Opposition Front bench - by giant turtles, frigate birds and boobies."</p><br>
<p>Subsequent to the thwarting of plans to establish a military station at Aldabra (which instead focused on Diego Garcia in the Chagos Islands), the Royal Society of London resumed their scientific study of the flora and fauna of the atoll with Professor David Stoddart as the leader. The Royal Society bought the lease of the atoll in 1970 and their research station became functional from 1970. After completion of their assigned work, the Royal Society left and the Seychelles Island Foundation (SIF), a public trust of Seychelles, took over the management and protection of the atoll in 1979. SIF functions under the patronage of the President of Seychelles and Aldabra was declared a Special Nature Reserve in 1981, and a year later it became a UNESCO World Heritage Site on 19 November 1982. A brass plaque inscribed with the citation "Aldabra, wonder of nature given to humanity by the people of the Republic of Seychelles" is stationed on the atoll. This appreciation befits the atoll which is truly one of the greatest ecologically undisturbed raised coral atolls in the world.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Extremely isolated, Aldabra is almost untouched by humans. Aldabra atoll is closer to the coast of Africa 630 km than to Mahé, and is in the most southwesterly part of the Seychelles. It is 407 km northwest of Madagascar and 440 km from Moroni on the Comoro Islands. The atoll is the largest raised coral reef in the world with an elevation of 8 m; and the second-largest atoll in the world after Kiritimati Atoll. Located at 9&deg;24&prime;S latitude, 46&deg;22&prime;E longitude and belongs to the Aldabra Group, one of the island groups of the Outer Islands of the Seychelles, which includes the island of Assumption and the atolls of Astove and Cosmoledo. Aldabra atoll is 34 km long (in east-west direction) and 13 km wide. It has a large shallow lagoon,196 km&sup2; in area, of which roughly two thirds is dry during low tide. The lagoon is encircled by fringing coral reef. Around the rim of the lagoon are the larger islands of the Atoll. The total land area of the Atoll is 155.4 km&sup2;. The size including the lagoon is 380 km&sup2;. The outside rim of the atoll has three passages which connect to the lagoon, which is 6 - in width as it opens to the sea. The depth of water in the lagoon averages about 5 m; however, the passages that open to the sea are up to 20 m deep and strongly affected by tidal currents.</p><br>
<h3>List of Islands</h3><br>
<p>Aldabra atoll has, besides the four larger islands, some 40 smaller islands and rocks, all inside the lagoon, as well as a few very small islets at the West Channels between Grand Terre Island and Picard Islands, the largest of those being Îlot Magnan.</p><br>
<p>Îlot Magnan 0.032 km&sup2;.</p><br>
<p>More Islands (unspecified location, but sizes are included under "Other Islands":</p><br>
<p>Île aux Cendres</p><br>
<p>Îlot Parc</p><br>
<p>Champignon des Os</p><br>
<p>Grand Mentor</p><br>
<p>Grand ÎIot</p><br>
<p>Heron Rock</p><br>
<p>Hide Island</p><br>
<p>Île aux Aigrettes</p><br>
<p>Île aux Cèdres</p><br>
<p>Îles Chalands</p><br>
<p>Île Fangame</p><br>
<p>Île Héron</p><br>
<p>Île Suacco</p><br>
<p>Îlot Déder</p><br>
<p>Îlot du Sud</p><br>
<p>Îlot du Milieu</p><br>
<p>Îlot du Nord</p><br>
<p>Îlot Macoa</p><br>
<p>Îlot Salade</p><br>
<p>Middle Row Island</p><br>
<p>Nobby Rock</p><br>
<p>North Row Island</p><br>
<p>Petit Mentor</p><br>
<p>Petits ÎIots</p><br>
<p>Pink Rock</p><br>
<p>South Row Island</p><br>
<p>Table Ronde</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The atoll reflects both fossil and geomorphological features, the former is the source of the biodiversity seen today. The atoll is made of reef limestone of Pleistocene age (with irregular coral formations called "champignon", made up of two layers of varying stages of crystallization ) and this extends over an average width of 2 km rising to a height of 8 m above sea level, and forming the rim line (low cliffs with "deep notches, preceded by jagged pinnacles") of the shallow central lagoon. Geologically the limestone beds have been subjected to striation, sink holes and pits with prominent and continuous limestone bed on the eastern side above the sediment deposits. The coastline has undercut limestone cliffs above a perched beach; it is in two clear terraces of 8 m and 6 m height above sea level. Sand dunes dominate the windward south coast. While the terrestrial topography (spread over an elevation range of 0 -) is rugged and dictated by the geomorphic conditions, the land surface comprises limestone of about 125,000 years age, which has uplifted many times above the sea level. The surface conditions are criss-crossed and riddled with pot holes and pits. In the eastern zone of the lagoon, though the surface is continuous, sediment beds are also seen. The windward southern coast is made up of sand dunes.</p><br>
<h2>Climate and Tides</h2><br>
<p>Aldabra is situated in the dry zone of the south-west Indian Ocean. The northwest monsoon is from November to March and brings the heaviest rainfall. In the remaining months, the south-easterly trade winds are recorded. Aldabra receives an average of 960 mm rainfall per year. Cyclones are rare in the Seychelles on account of its nearness to the Equator. Tides in the coastal zone rise to 3 m height, causing channel currents, and a huge influx of water; the main channel drains 60% flow into the lagoon. The reported monthly mean maximum temperature recorded in December is 31 &deg;C. The mean minimum temperature recorded in August is 22 &deg;C.</p><br>
<h2>Wildlife</h2><br>
<p>The earliest study of the flora and fauna, and also the geomorphological structure is dated to 1910. There are 307 species of animals and plants on Aldabra. Reptiles are the prominent terrestrial fauna.</p><br>
<h3>Flora</h3><br>
<p>The higher areas of Aldabra are covered in pemphis, a thick coastal shrub, while the lower areas, which are home to the giant tortoises, are a mixture of trees, shrubs, herbs and grasses. There have been recorded 273 species of flowering plants, shrubs, and ferns on the atoll. There are dense thickets of Pemphis acidula, and a mixture of grasses and herbs called "tortoise turf" in many areas. This flora includes 19 endemic species and 22 species that are only common to neighboring islands, and several of these species are on the IUCN Red List. The tropicbird orchid (Angraecum seychellarum) is the national flower of Seychelles and is found in the dry craggy limestone champignon of Aldabra. Other endemic plants such as Pandanus aldabrensis, the Aldabra lily (Lomatophyllum aldebrense) and a sub-species of tropicbird orchid, Angraecum eburneum. The lagoon is bordered by mangrove forests, and has large inland seagrass meadows as well as areas of coral reef and sand flats. The mangroves, which thrive in tidal mudflat areas and saline conditions, are seen on the shores of the lagoon and are integral to the coastal ecosystem. There are seven species of mangrove occurring on Aldabra, three of which are rarely occurring species. These include Mangliye blan or white mangrove (Avicennia marina) which grows to 12 m, Mangliye lat or black mangrove (Bruguiera gymnorhiza) which grows to 18 m in a conical shape, Mangliye zonn (Ceriops tagal) which grows to 7 m with a buttressed trunk, and Mangliye rouz or red mangrove (Rhizophora mucronata) which is the tallest species up to 20 m in height.</p><br>
<h3>Fauna</h3><br>
<p>The atoll has distinctive fauna including the largest population of giant tortoises (Aldabrachelys gigantea) in the world (100,000 animals). Tortoise size varies substantially across the atoll, but adult tortoises typically have a carapace length of about 105 cm and can weigh up to 350 kg. They are herbivores and feed on a variety of plants, trees and even algae that grows in the freshwater pools. The tortoises mate between February and May, the females then lay their eggs from June to September in areas with suitable soil layers. They lay eggs (the size of golf balls ) in a clutch of three to five eggs every few years in high-density areas and 14-16 eggs in low-density areas. The females can lay several clutches in a year and the incubation period is 73–160 days. The small vulnerable juveniles have to survive the predation by coconut crabs, land crabs, rats and birds. In the past giant tortoises have been relocated to many other islands in Seychelles and also to Victoria Botanical Gardens in Mahé. One of the longest-lived Aldabra giant tortoises was Adwaita, a male who died at the age of about 250 years at Kolkata&#39;s Alipore Zoological Gardens on March 24, 2006.</p><br>
<p>Aldabra is a breeding ground for the hawksbill sea turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) and green sea turtle (Chelonia mydas). Aldabra has one of the largest populations of nesting green turtles in the Western Indian Ocean. Aldabra has a large population of the world&#39;s largest terrestrial arthropod, the coconut crab (Birgus latro); and hosts the white-throated rail, the only surviving flightless rail species in the Indian Ocean. Sharks, manta rays, barracuda can be found in the seas surrounding the island. During the Pleistocene the dominant land predator was the crocodilian Aldabrachampsus which is now extinct. Three extant species of lizards occur, the skink Cryptoblepharus boutonii and the geckos Phelsuma abbotti and Hemidactylus mercatorius. Pleistocene fossils also indicate the former presence of an Oplurus iguana and other skink and gecko species. There are three endemic species of bat from Aldabra: Paratriaenops pauliani, Chaerephon pusilla and the Aldabra flying fox (Pteropus aldabrensis), as well as the more widely distributed Mauritian tomb bat (Taphozous mauritianus). There are 1,000 species of insects, many of them endemic. Many species of butterflies also flutter around Aldabra.</p><br>
<p>Endemic birds include the Aldabra drongo (Dicrurus aldabranus), the Aldabran subspecies of the white-throated rail (Dryolimnas cuvieri aldabranus), the last surviving flightless bird of the Indian Ocean region, and the endemic Aldabra fody (Foudia aldabrana), The islands are important breeding grounds for thousands of seabirds, including several species of tern, red-tailed tropicbirds, white-tailed tropicbirds, red-footed boobies, and the world’s second largest breeding populations of great and lesser frigate birds. The bird fauna is most similar to Madagascar or Comoros and other birds found here include greater flamingos, the Madagascar pond heron, Comoros blue pigeon, Madagascar kestrel, Madagascar coucal, Madagascar nightjar, Madagascar bulbul and souimanga sunbird.</p><br>
<p>At least 13 species of cetaceans including dolphins, orcas, and especially humpback whales have been known in the waters. Dugongs, once thought to be regionally extinct in the 18th century, have been confirmed for multiple times in very recent years.</p><br>
<h2>Conservation</h2><br>
<p>Conservationists feared a major threat to the atolls biodiversity in the 1960s when, as part of the British Indian Ocean Territory, the British made plans to set up a military establishment on the atoll. Due to national and international opposition this plan was cancelled in 1967. This incident became known as the Aldabra Affair&#39; in England. Invasive alien species such as rats, cats and goats that were introduced in the past threaten the native biodiversity of the atoll. Goats were eradicated from the atoll in 2012 after a long-term eradication program. Cats have been removed from all of the islands except Grande Terre Island, which allowed for the reintroduction of the Aldabra rail to Picard Island. Research into a feasibility study to eradicate rats from the atoll has been undertaken. Aldabra was until recently free of introduced birds but unfortunately the introduced Foudia madagascariensis that was introduced to Assumption Island, now occurs on Aldabra. an eradication program for this bird on both Assumption and Aldabra is almost done. Due to the limited space of its habitat, extreme weather conditions, epidemic and limited range could also pose serious threats to the entire ecology of the atoll.</p><br>
<h2>Protection</h2><br>
<p>Aldabra atoll was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site on 19 November 1982. it is one of the two UNESCO World Heritage Sites in the Seychelles, and is managed and protected by the Seychelles Islands Foundation (SIF). The marine protected area extends 1 km into the sea to ensure preservation of its marine fauna.</p><br>
<p>BirdLife International declared Aldabra as an Important Endemic Bird Area (IBA) in 2001 on account of its large seabird colonies under categories A1, A2, A4i, A4ii and A4iii, covering an area of 33,180 hectare overlapping with the special reserve area of 35,000 hectare of Aldabra Atoll.</p><br>
<p>Aldabra became a Ramsar Wetland Site of International Importance in 2010.</p><br>
<p>Covering 25,100 ha (over half the area of the whole atoll) the wetland ecosystem of Aldabra include the extensive shallow lagoon inside the atoll, which is carpeted with lush seagrass beds and patchy coral reefs, the intertidal mud flats, the coral reefs outside the lagoon, freshwater pools, beaches, and 2000 ha of mangrove stands. These wetlands support several endangered species including the increasing number of turtles at the atoll, dugongs and many other bird, fish and invertebrate species.</p><br>
<p>Aldabra was designated as a site under the Indian Ocean South East Asia (IOSEA) turtle network, in their 2014 convention.</p><br>
<h2>Demography</h2><br>
<p>A small scientific research station of the SIF is based on La Gigi village on Picard Island. The permanent staff (currently 12) conduct research to study Aldabra&#39;s biodiversity.</p><br>
<h2>Transport</h2><br>
<p>Aldabra is not easily accessed. No airstrips, helipads or landing jetties have been permitted to be built on the atoll. The nearest airfield on Assumption is 50 km south-east of Picard Island. Supply ships operating from Mahé provide food and other essentials once every two months to the scientists and staff at the research station.</p><br>
<h2>Tourism</h2><br>
<p>Cruises are operated by several companies along with dive boats which may visit the atoll on expedition tours. Visits to the island by people other than the scientists and staff of the SIF are strictly controlled and only guided tours are provided with prior permission., an average of 900 tourists visit the atoll a year. Within the atoll, paved walking paths exist from the village of La Gigi, which leads to a promontory from where scenic views of the large lagoon (during low tides) and the mangrove species are seen.</p><br>
<h2>Image gallery</h2><br>
<p>Pemba Island, known as "The Green Island" in Arabic , is an island forming part of the Zanzibar Archipelago, lying within the Swahili Coast in the Indian Ocean.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>With a land area of 988 km² it is situated about 50 km to the north of Unguja, the largest island of the archipelago. In 1964, Zanzibar was united with the former colony of Tanganyika to form Tanzania. It lies 50 km east of mainland Tanzania, across the Pemba Channel. Together with Mafia Island (south of Unguja), these islands form the Spice Islands (not to be confused with the Maluku Islands of Indonesia).</p><br>
<p>Most of the island, which is hillier and more fertile than Unguja, is dominated by small scale farming. There is also large scale farming of cash crops such as cloves.</p><br>
<p>In previous years, the island was seldom visited due to inaccessibility and a reputation for political violence, with the notable exception of those drawn by its reputation as a center for traditional medicine and witchcraft. There is a quite large Arab community on the island, who immigrated from Oman. The population is a mix of Arab and original Waswahili inhabitants of the island. A significant portion of the population also identifies as Shirazi people.</p><br>
<p>The most important towns in Pemba are Chake-Chake (the capital), Mkoani, and Wete, which is the largest city. The centrally located Chake-Chake is perched on a mound with a view to the west on a bay and the tiny Misali Island, where the tides determine when a dhow can enter the local harbour. Pemba is, with the exception of a strip of land along its eastern coast, a very fertile place: besides clove trees, the locals grow mainly rice, coconut, bananas, cassava and red beans (called maharagwe in the Swahili language).</p><br>
<p>Pemba is home to several dive sites, with steep drop-offs, untouched coral and very abundant marine life.</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>Pemba has a tropical climate, yet somewhat milder than Tanzania&#39;s mainland and milder than in Unguja island. This climate is classified as "Aw" by the Köppen-Geiger system. The average temperature in Chake Chake is 25.5 °C (78 °F). The average annual rainfall is 1,364 mm. The monthly average temperatures are usually between 24 - 27.4°C (75°F - 81°F). There are two rain seasons, with most rainfall coming between April and May and smaller rain season coming between November and December. Drier months are January - February, and a longer drier season between June to October.</p><br>
<h2>Archaeology</h2><br>
<p>Archaeological research on Pemba has shown its centrality to the Swahili coast trading system as early as 600 AD. Along the northern coast, urban settlements at Chwaka later developed and flourished from the eleventh century to ~1500 AD.</p><br>
<p>West of Pemba&#39;s capital Chake-Chake, on a long stretched peninsula called Ras Mkumbuu, one can find some of the oldest and best preserved series of early ruins on the islands (Ndagoni ruins, probably 14th century).</p><br>
<p>East of Chake-Chake one can find the Mkama Ndume ruins at Pujini village (south of the airport) within easy reach by road from Chake-Chake. This is the only known early fortification on the whole Swahili Coast; it is dated to the fifteenth century.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>According to the Arab geographer Yakut, in the mid-13th century there were two independent sultans ruling over parts of Pemba Island.</p><br>
<p>On 24 June 2016, the Australian Transport Minister, Darren Chester, said that a piece of aircraft debris was found on Pemba Island, possibly being from the missing Malaysia Airlines Flight 370.</p><br>
<h2>Economy</h2><br>
<p>Pemba is also famous for its rich fishing grounds. Between the island and the mainland there is the deep 50 kilometre wide Pemba Channel, which is one of the most profitable fishing grounds for game fishing on the Swahili Coast.</p><br>
<p>A large proportion of the Zanzibar export earnings comes from cloves. The greatest concentration of clove trees is found on Pemba (3.5 million trees) as growing conditions here are superior to those on Unguja island. Clove trees grow to the height of around 10 to 15 metres and can produce crops for over 50 years.</p><br>
<p>More recently with the booming tourism industry in neighbouring Zanzibar, more adventurous travellers are seeking out the less-crowded Pemba, led by dive tourists seeking the uncrowded and un-spoiled reefs the island offers the experienced diver.</p><br>
<p>For the promotion of tourism the department of Surveys and Mapping at Chake-Chake has published a map with tourist guide since 1992.</p><br>
<h2>Transport</h2><br>
<p>Pemba Airport is also known as Wawi Airport or Karume Airport and connects the island to Arusha, Dar es Salaam and Zanzibar.</p><br>
<h2>Image gallery</h2><br>
<p>The Isles of Shoals are a group of small islands and tidal ledges situated approximately 6 mi off the east coast of the United States, straddling the border of the states of Maine and New Hampshire.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Some of the islands were used for seasonal fishing camps by indigenous Americans and first settled by Europeans in the early 17th century. They became an important fishing area for the young British and French colonies. The Isles of Shoals were named by English explorer Capt. John Smith after sighting them in 1614. The first recorded landfall of an Englishman was that of explorer Captain Christopher Levett, whose 300 fishermen in six ships discovered that the Isles of Shoals were largely abandoned in 1623.</p><br>
<p>"The first place I set my foot upon in New England was the Isle of Shoals, being islands in the sea about two leagues from the main," Levett wrote later. "Upon these islands I neither could see one good timber-tree nor so much good ground as to make a garden. The place is found to be a good fishing-place for six ships, but more can not be well there, for want of convenient stage room, as this year&#39;s experience hath proved."</p><br>
<p>The first town, "Apledoore," included all of the Isles of Shoals, and was incorporated by the General Court of the Massachusetts Bay Colony on May 22, 1661. At that time, the province of New Hampshire and the province of Maine were both a part of Massachusetts Bay Colony. By 1665, the name of the town had changed to "Iles of Shoales." Starting in 1680 and continuing for several years, there was a general migration of the population to Star Island in New Hampshire, departing from the Maine (Massachusetts) Hog Island (now known as Appledore). In 1696, the town was annexed by Kittery. In 1715 the township of Gosport was established by New Hampshire on Star Island.</p><br>
<p>The Gosport community was fairly prosperous up until about 1778, when the islanders were evacuated to Rye, New Hampshire, due to the Revolutionary War. Though a small population remained, the islands were largely abandoned until the middle of the 19th century, when Thomas Laighton and Levi Thaxter opened a popular summer hotel on Appledore Island. Laightons daughter, Celia, married Levi at the age of fifteen and as Celia Thaxter became the most popular American female poet of the 19th century. She hosted an arts community on the island frequented by such luminaries as authors Nathaniel Hawthorne, John Greenleaf Whittier, Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sarah Orne Jewett, and the Impressionist painter Childe Hassam. Having executed his last drawing three days previous, the Boston painter William Morris Hunt drowned here in 1879, reportedly a suicide. Hunts body was discovered by Celia Thaxter. The popularity of Laighton&#39;s Appledore House soon led to establishment of the Mid-Ocean House on Smuttynose Island, and the Oceanic Hotel, which is still in use today on Star Island.</p><br>
<h2>Appledore Island</h2><br>
<p>Appledore Island, in Maine, is the largest of the Isles of Shoals, at 95 acre. Formerly known as Hog Island, and prior to that as Farm Island, it is approximately 0.5 mi from east to west, and 0.6 mi from north to south. It was home to a large hotel, The Appledore House, during the 19th century. Built in 1847 and opened the following year, the hotel was lost to a fire in 1914. According to Celia Thaxter, as late as 1873, "Philip Babb, or some evil-minded descendant of his, haunted Appledore." Today, the island is the operating station of the Shoals Marine Laboratory, run cooperatively by Cornell University and the University of New Hampshire. The island is mostly owned by the Star Island Corporation.</p><br>
<h2>Star Island</h2><br>
<p>Second in size at 46 acre, Star Island is located in New Hampshire within the borders of the town of Rye and is the only island served by a commercial boat from the mainland. It is a religious and educational conference center, owned by the Star Island Corporation, which is affiliated with the Unitarian Universalist Association and the United Church of Christ. During the summer, the island hosts a number of week-long and shorter conferences which make use of the Oceanic Hotel, Gosport House, the 150-year-old chapel, and several buildings dating back to the original village. Short-term day visitors are also welcomed, although that may depend on the boat schedule. This is also a popular destination for sailboats wishing to tie up overnight in Gosport harbor.</p><br>
<h2>Smuttynose and Malaga Islands</h2><br>
<p>Smuttynose Island, at 25 acre, is the third-largest island. It is allegedly the site of Blackbeard&#39;s honeymoon, later for the shipwreck of the Spanish ship Sagunto in 1813, and then for the notorious 1873 murders of two young women. The latter is recalled in the story, by Celia Thaxter, in the 1997 novel, The Weight of Water, by Anita Shreve (and in the film of the same name), and in the song, by. There are two small houses on the island. One of them, the Samuel Haley house, was once believed to be the oldest structure in the state of Maine. Smuttynose is not populated today.</p><br>
<p>Malaga Island is a diminutive island just to the west of Smuttynose, connected to it by a breakwater. That breakwater was built around 1820 by Captain Samuel Haley, who is reputed to have paid for its construction with proceeds from four bars of pirate silver that he found under a flat rock on the island.</p><br>
<h2>White and Seavey Islands</h2><br>
<p>White Island and Seavey Island are located at the southern end of the Isles of Shoals, within the borders of the town of Rye, New Hampshire. During low tide, the two islands are connected by a land bridge.</p><br>
<p>White Island features one of the two lighthouses on the New Hampshire coast. White Island is dominated by Isles of Shoals Light, now automated, and the keepers house. The lighthouse and associated buildings are now owned by the state of New Hampshire. The island hosts a coastal weather station which frequently records sustained hurricane-force winds from noreaster coastal storms in the winter, due to the exposed nature of the island. The lighthouse tower was restored in 2005 as the result of the efforts of a group of seventh graders in nearby North Hampton, known as the Lighthouse Kids (a chapter of the American Lighthouse Foundation). Poet Celia Thaxter grew up on this island before moving to Smuttynose Island and eventually Appledore Island.</p><br>
<p>Seavey Island has been the site of a tern restoration project conducted by the Audubon Society of New Hampshire in recent years.</p><br>
<h2>Other islands</h2><br>
<p>On the New Hampshire side of the border, Lunging Island, formerly Londoner&#39;s Island, was the site of an early trading post for codfish. Today it is privately owned.</p><br>
<p>On the Maine side are Duck and Cedar Islands. Duck Island lies about 1 mi to the north and once was used as a bombing range for the US Navy. It was sold by the Star Island Corporation to Maine Coast Heritage Trust in 2002, and was transferred to the USA Fish and Wildlife Service in 2003. It is kept as a wildlife sanctuary. It is home to a seal colony and has never supported a human population.</p><br>
<p>Cedar Island is connected by breakwaters to both Smuttynose Island and Star Island and is privately owned.</p><br>
<p>The Tian Shan, meaning the Mountain of Heaven or the Heavenly Mountain, is a large system of mountain ranges located in Central Asia. The highest peak in the Tian Shan is Jengish Chokusu, at 7,439 m high. Its lowest point is the Turpan Depression, which sits at below sea level.</p><br>
<p>The Chinese name for Tian Shan may have been derived from the Xiongnu word Qilian – according to Tang commentator Yan Shigu, Qilian is the Xiongnu word for sky or heaven. Sima Qian in the Records of the Grand Historian mentioned Qilian in relation to the homeland of the Yuezhi, and the term is believed to refer to the Tian Shan rather than the Qilian Mountains 1,500 km further east now known by this name. The Tannu-Ola mountains in Tuva has the same meaning in its name ("heaven/celestial mountains" or "god/spirit mountains"). Tian Shan is sacred in Tengrism, and its second-highest peak is known as Khan Tengri which may be translated as "Lord of the Spirits".</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Tian Shan is north and west of the Taklamakan Desert and directly north of the Tarim Basin in the border region of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Xinjiang in northwest China. In the south it links up with the Pamir Mountains and to north and east it meets the Altai Mountains of Mongolia.</p><br>
<p>In Western cartography such as National Geographic, the eastern end of the Tian Shan is usually understood to be east of Ürümqi, with the range to the east of that city known as the Bogda Shan as part of the Tian Shan. Chinese cartography from the Han Dynasty to the present agrees, with the Tian Shan including the Bogda Shan and Barkol ranges.</p><br>
<p>The Tian Shan are a part of the Himalayan orogenic belt, which was formed by the collision of the Indian and Eurasian plates in the Cenozoic era. They are one of the longest mountain ranges in Central Asia and stretch some 2,900 km eastward from Tashkent in Uzbekistan.</p><br>
<p>The highest peak in the Tian Shan is Jengish Chokusu (also called Victory Peak) on the border of China. At 7,439 m high, it is the highest point in Kyrgyzstan. The Tian Shan&#39;s second highest peak, Khan Tengri (Lord of the Spirits), straddles the Kazakhstan-Kyrgyzstan border and at 7,010 m is the highest point of Kazakhstan. Mountaineers class these as the two most northerly peaks over 7,000 m in the world.</p><br>
<p>The Torugart Pass, at 3,752 m, is located at the border between Kyrgyzstan and China&#39;s Xinjiang province. The forested Alatau ranges, which are at a lower altitude in the northern part of the Tian Shan, are inhabited by pastoral tribes that speak Turkic languages.</p><br>
<p>The Tian Shan are separated from the Tibetan Plateau by the Taklimakan Desert and the Tarim Basin to the south.</p><br>
<p>The major rivers rising in the Tian Shan are the Syr Darya, the Ili River and the Tarim River. The Aksu Canyon is a notable feature in the northwestern Tian Shan.</p><br>
<p>Continuous permafrost is typically found in the Tian Shan starting at the elevation of about 3,500-3,700 m above the sea level. Discontinuous alpine permafrost usually occurs down to 2,700-3,300 m, but in certain locations, due to the peculiarity of the aspect and the microclimate, it can be found at elevations as low as 2,000 m.</p><br>
<p>One of the first Europeans to visit and the first to describe the Tian Shan in detail was the Russian explorer Peter Semenov, who did so in the 1850s.</p><br>
<p>Glaciers in the Tian Shan Mountains have been rapidly shrinking and have lost 27%, or 5.4 billion tons annually, of its ice mass since 1961 compared to an average of 7% worldwide. It is estimated that by 2050 half of the remaining glaciers will have melted.</p><br>
<h2>Ranges</h2><br>
<p>The Tian Shan have a number of named ranges which are often mentioned separately (all distances are approximate).</p><br>
<p>In China the Tian Shan starts north of Kumul City (Hami) with the U-shaped Barkol Mountains, from about 600 to 400 km east of Ürümqi. Then the Bogda Shan (god mountains) run from 350 to 40 km east of Ürümqi. Then there is a low area between Ürümqi and the Turfan Depression. The Borohoro Mountains start just south of Ürümqi and run west northwest 450 km separating Dzungaria from the Ili River basin. Their north end abuts on the 200 km Dzungarian Alatau which run east northeast along Sino-Kazakh border. They start 50 km east of Taldykorgan in Kazakhstan and end at the Dzungarian Gate. The Dzungarian Alatau in the north, the Borohoro Mountains in the middle and the Ketmen Range in the south make a reversed Z or S, the northeast enclosing part of Dzungaria and the southwest enclosing the upper Ili valley.</p><br>
<p>In Kyrgyzstan the main line of the Tian Shan continues as Narat Range from the base of the Borohoros west 570 km to the point where China, Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan meet. Here is the highest part of the range – the Central Tian Shan, with Peak Pobeda (Kakshaal Too range) and Khan Tengri. West of this, the Tian Shan split into an ‘eye’, with Issyk Kul Lake in its center. The south side of the lake is the Terskey Alatau and the north side the Kyungey Ala-Too (shady and sunny Ala-Too). North of the Kyungey Ala-Too and parallel to it is the Trans-Ili Alatau in Kazakhstan just south of Almaty. West of the eye, the range continues 400 km as the Kyrgyz Ala-Too, separating Chui Province from Naryn Oblast and then Kazakhstan from the Talas Province. This oblast is the upper valley of the Talas River, the south side of which is the 200 km Talas Ala-Too Range (Ala-too is a Kirgiz spelling of Alatau). At the east end of the Talas Alatau the Suusamyr Too range runs southeast enclosing the Suusamyr Valley or plateau.</p><br>
<p>As for the area south of the Fergana Valley there is a 800 km group of mountains that curves west-southwest from south of Issyk Kul Lake separating the Tarim Basin from the Fergana Valley. The Fergana Range runs northeast towards the Talas Ala-Too and separaties the upper Naryn basin from Fergana proper. The southern side of these mountains merge into the Pamirs in Tajikistan (Alay Mountains and Trans-Alay Range). West of this is the Turkestan Range, which continues almost to Samarkand.</p><br>
<h2>Ice Age</h2><br>
<p>On the north margin of the Tarim basin between the mountain chain of the Kokshaal-Tau in the south and that one of the Terskey Alatau in the north there stretches the 100 to 120 km wide Tian Shan plateau with its set up mountain landscape.The Kokshaal-Tau continues with an overall length of 570 km from W of Pik Dankowa (Dankov, 5986 m) up to east-north-east to Pik Pobedi (Tumor Feng, 7439 m) and beyond it. This mountain chain as well as that of the 300 km long parallel mountain chain of the Terskey Alatau and the Tian Shan plateau situated in between, during glacial times were covered by connected ice-stream-networks and a plateau glacier. Currently the interglacial remnant of this glaciation is formed by the only just 61 km long South Inylschek glacier. The outlet glacier tongues of the plateau glacier flowed to the north as far as down to Lake Issyk Kul (Lake) at 1605 (1609) m asl calving in this 160 km long lake.</p><br>
<p>In the same way strongly glaciated was the in excess of 50 km wide high mountain area of the Kungey Alatau connected north of Issyk Kul and stretching as far as the mountain foreland near Alma Ata. The Kungey Alatau is 230 km long. Down from the Kungey Alatau the glacial glaciers also calved into the Issyk Kul lake.Its Chon-Kemin valley was glaciated up to its inflow into the Chu valley. From the west-elongation of the Kungey Alatau –that is the Kirgizskiy Alatau range (42°25’N/74° - 75°E) - the glacial glaciers flowed down as far as into the mountain foreland down to 900 m asl (close to the town Bishkek). Among others the Ak-Sai valley glacier has developed there a mountain foreland glacier.</p><br>
<p>Altogether the glacial Tian Shan glaciation occupied an area of c. 118 000 km².The glacier snowline (ELA) as altitude limit between glacier feeding area and melting zone had decreased about 1200 altitude metres compared with today.</p><br>
<p>Under the condition of a comparable precipitation ratio there would result from this a depression of the average annual temperature of 7.2 to 8.4 °C for the Würm-ice age (Last Glacial period=MIS 2) compared with today.</p><br>
<h2>Ecology</h2><br>
<p>The Tian Shan holds important forests of Schrenk&#39;s Spruce (Picea schrenkiana) at altitudes of over 2,000 m; the lower slopes have unique natural forests of wild walnuts and apples.</p><br>
<h2>Religion</h2><br>
<h3>Chinese religion</h3><br>
<p>In Chinese traditional religion and Daoism, Tian Shan is associated to the most high God, Tian itself. It is also regarded as the location of the peach tree of immortality wardened by Xiwangmu, the Queen Mother of the West.</p><br>
<h3>Tengrism</h3><br>
<p>In Tengrism, Khan Tengri is the lord of all spirits and the religion&#39;s supreme deity, and it is the name given to the second highest peak of Tian Shan.</p><br>
<h2>World Heritage Site</h2><br>
<p>At the 2013 Conference on World Heritage, the eastern portion of Tian Shan in western China&#39;s Xinjiang Region was listed as a World Heritage Site. The western portion in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Uzbekistan was then listed in 2016.</p><br>
<p>The Isle of Ely is a historic region around the city of Ely in Cambridgeshire, England. It used to be a county in its own right.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>Its name is said to mean "island of eels", a reference to the creatures that were often caught in the local rivers for food. This etymology was first recorded by the Venerable Bede.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Until the 17th century, the area was an island surrounded by a large area of fenland, a type of swamp. It was coveted as an area difficult to penetrate, and was controlled in the very early medieval period by the Gyrwas, an Anglo-Saxon tribe. Upon their marriage in 652, Tondbert, a prince of the Gyrwas, presented Æthelthryth (who became St. Æthelthryth), the daughter of King Anna of the East Angles, with the Isle of Ely. She afterwards founded a monastery at Ely, which was destroyed by Viking raiders in 870, but was rebuilt and became a famous Abbey and Shrine. The Fens were ultimately drained. This began in 1626 using a network of canals designed by Dutch experts. Many Fenlanders were opposed to the draining as it deprived some of them of their traditional livelihood; acts of vandalism on dykes, ditches and sluices were common, but the drainage was completed by the end of the century.</p><br>
<p>The area&#39;s natural defences led to it playing a role in the military history of England. Following the Norman Conquest, the Isle became a refuge for English forces under Earl Morcar, Bishop Aethelwine of Durham and Hereward the Wake in 1071. The area was taken by William the Conqueror only after a prolonged struggle.</p><br>
<p>In 1139 civil war broke out between the forces of King Stephen and the Empress Matilda. Bishop Nigel of Ely, a supporter of Matilda, unsuccessfully tried to hold the Isle. In 1143 Geoffrey de Mandeville rebelled against Stephen, and made his base in the Isle. Geoffrey was mortally wounded at Burwell in 1144.</p><br>
<p>In 1216, during the First Barons War, the Isle was unsuccessfully defended against the army of King John. Ely took part in the Peasants Revolt of 1381.</p><br>
<h2>Administration</h2><br>
<p>From 1109 until 1837, the Isle was under the jurisdiction of the Bishop of Ely who appointed a Chief Justice of Ely and exercised temporal powers within the Liberty of Ely. This temporal jurisdiction originated in a charter granted by King Edgar in 970, and confirmed by Edward the Confessor and Henry I to the abbot of Ely. The latter monarch established Ely as the seat of a bishop in 1109, creating the Isle of Ely a county palatine under the bishop. An act of parliament in 1535/6 ended the palatine status of the Isle, with all justices of the peace to be appointed by letters patent issued under the great seal and warrants to be issued in the king&#39;s name. However, the bishop retained exclusive jurisdiction in civil and criminal matters, and was custos rotulorum. A chief bailiff was appointed for life by the bishop, and performed the functions of high sheriff within the liberty, who also headed the government of the city of Ely.</p><br>
<p>The Liberty of Ely Act 1837 ended the bishop&#39;s secular powers in the Isle. The area was declared a division of Cambridgeshire, with the right to appoint justices revested in the crown. Following the 1837 Act the Isle maintained separate Quarter Sessions, and formed its own constabulary.</p><br>
<p>Under the Local Government Bill of 1888, which proposed the introduction of elected county councils, the Isle was to form part of Cambridgeshire. Following the intervention of the local member of parliament, Charles Selwyn, the Isle of Ely was constituted a separate administrative county in 1889. The county was small in terms of both area and population, and its abolition was proposed by the Local Government Boundary Commission in 1947. The report of the LGBC was not acted upon, and the administrative county survived until 1965. Following the recommendations of the Local Government Commission for England, on 1 April 1965 the bulk of the area was merged to form Cambridgeshire and Isle of Ely, with the Thorney Rural District going to Huntingdon and Peterborough.</p><br>
<h3>Subdivisions</h3><br>
<p>In 1894 the county was divided into county districts, with the rural districts being Ely Rural District, Thorney Rural District, Whittlesey Rural District, Wisbech Rural District, North Witchford Rural District, and the urban districts were Ely, March, Whittlesey and Wisbech (the only municipal borough). Whittlesey Rural district consisted of only one parish (Whittlesey Rural), which was added to Whittlesey urban district, in 1926.</p><br>
<p>The Isle of Ely parliamentary constituency was created as a two-member seat in the First and Second Protectorate Parliaments from 1654 to 1659. The constituency was re-created with a single seat in 1918. In the boundary changes of 1983 it was replaced by the new constituency of North East Cambridgeshire. Original historical documents relating to the Isle of Ely are held by Cambridgeshire Archives and Local Studies at the County Record Office in Cambridge.</p><br>
<h2>Coat of arms</h2><br>
<p>The Isle of Ely County Council was granted a coat of arms on 1 May 1931. Previous to the grant the council had been using the arms of Diocese of Ely: Gules, three ducal coronets, two and one or. In the 1931 grant, silver and blue waves were added to the episcopal arms, to suggest that the county was an "isle". The crest above the shield was a human hand grasping a trident around which an eel was entwined, referring to the popular derivation of "Ely". On the wrist of the hand was a "Wake knot", representing Hereward the Wake.</p><br>
<p>Tahquitz Peak  is a granite, 8,846 ft rock formation located on the high western slope of the San Jacinto mountain range in Riverside County, Southern California, United States, above the mountain town of Idyllwild. Tahquitz has a steep approach hike , leading to a roughly 1000-foot face. Tahquitz, which can refer to both the rock outcrop and the outcrop&#39;s parent peak, is a popular hiking destination to the fire lookout station and the rock climbing area.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>Tahquitz Peak can be reached from one of several trails, and is only a half-mile deviation from the Pacific Crest Trail. The most direct route is the South Ridge trail starting in Idyllwild, California. This trail is a direct hike to the peak and is typically used as an "out and back" route, four miles in length, featuring a 2400 ft. elevation gain. Tahquitz Peak can also be achieved via Devil&#39;s Slide Trail in Idyllwild, 4.8 miles one way, with a 2700 ft. elevation gain. The peak can be reached from the Palm Springs Aerial Tramway via a ten-mile hike with rolling hills and various ascents and descents.</p><br>
<p>Tahquitz Peak is used as a fire lookout in the late spring to mid fall, using a two-man ranger station with 270-degree panoramic views.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The area was named after the legendary luminous spirit-demon of the Soboba Indian tribe. The name first appeared in print on a 1901 USGS San Jacinto topographical map.</p><br>
<p>Two nearby rock climbing locations are Lily Rock and Suicide Rock.</p><br>
<p>Lily Rock, usually known as Tahquitz Rock, is one half mile (0.8 km) to the southwest of Tahquitz Peak. The rock is said to have a lily-white appearance which might account for the name. Another theory is that it was named for Lily Eastman who was the daughter of Dr. Sanford Eastman, the first Secretary and a Director of the "Southern California Colony Association" which later became Riverside.</p><br>
<p>Suicide Rock is 1.6 mi to the northwest. Over three hundred climbing routes have been described.</p><br>
<h2>Climbing history</h2><br>
<p>In the 1930s, the Rock Climbing Section (RCS) of the Sierra Club Members in California started a campaign to identify potential rock climbing locations in southern California. RCS member Jim Smith "discovered" Tahquitz in June 1935. The first fifth-class ascent of Tahquitz, "The Trough", occurred in August 1936 by Jim Smith, Bob Brinton, and Z. Jasaitis. A month later, Smith and Bill Rice quickly put up the now-classic route, "Angels Fright" (5.6). In 1937, Dick Jones and Glen Dawson led a first ascent of "The Mechanics Route", one of the first 5.8s in the country. During the late 1930s, the movie Three On A Rope featured climbing at Tahquitz.</p><br>
<p>By 1940, about a dozen routes had been established. World War II slowed down development, but activity soon picked back up and fresh faces were seen at Tahquitz. Royal Robbins, a prominent member of the RCS, led the new surge in Tahquitz development in the 1950s. This new group of climbers eschewed some of the time-honored safety techniques of the past, which led to harder and harder climbs being developed, culminating with "The Vampire" in 1959. Though Robbins and Dave Rearick climbed it via aid technique (5.9 A3/4), it was free climbed in 1973 (5.11a) by John Long et al. and is now considered one of the best free climbs in southern California.</p><br>
<p>With the help of new climbing shoe designs, route development in the 1960s jumped well into 5.10 territory. Nearby Suicide Rock also started to be developed, resulting in another southern California classic, "Valhalla" (5.11a) in November 1970.</p><br>
<p>The Yosemite Decimal System (YDS) of classifying routes was developed at Tahquitz by members of the RCS of the Angeles Chapter of the Sierra Club in the 1950s. Royal Robbins in 1952 established what was then one of the hardest free climbs in the United States, known as "Open Book". As new routes were constantly being discovered and climbed, the old method of rating climbs as either easy, moderate, or hard was quickly becoming useless. With the help of fellow RCS members Don Wilson and Chuck Wilts, the modern system of rating fifth-class climbing was developed, with the scale running from 5.0 to 5.9. Mark Powell, a local who frequented Yosemite, passed this system on to the climbers in Yosemite. By the early 1960s, the Yosemite Decimal System was the standard in the United States.</p><br>
<p>In 1967, Bob Kamps and Mark Powell established "Chingadera" one of the first 5.11 in the country and setting a new standard in rock climbing.</p><br>
<p>Most climbers, after the 1970s, considered the area "climbed out" in terms of potential new first ascents. Still, new and quality climbs continued to be added on Tahquitz as well as the smaller rock outcrops nearby, Bob Gaines having established many of them.</p><br>
<h2>Natural history</h2><br>
<p>The plant Ivesia callida is endemic to the San Jacinto Range and is known by the common name Tahquitz mousetail.</p><br>
<h2>Cultural references</h2><br>
<p>The Tribe of Tahquitz is an Honor Boy Scout organization of the Long Beach Area Council, and a summer camp which bears the same name.</p><br>
<p>Tahquitz is a supporting character in the Louis L&#39;Amour novel, The Lonesome Gods (1983), that is mistaken for a demigod of Native American legend and lives in the mountains alone near Agua Caliente. The story features the mountain as well as the Mojave and Colorado Deserts of California as the setting of the story.</p><br>
<p>Tahquitz Exchange is a novel by Bernnie Reese (1993). DeChamp Co. pp. 225.</p><br>
<p>Tahquitz is a major reoccurring support character in the second novel Idyllwild of The Sheriff Wyler Scott Series a novel by "Mark Paul" Sebar which takes place in the modern Colorado Desert and High San Jacinto Mountains. pp. 233</p><br>
<p>Colophon  was an ancient city in Ionia. Founded around the turn of the first millennium BC, it was likely one of the oldest of the twelve cities of the Ionian League. In ancient times it was located between Lebedos  and Ephesus . Today the ruins of the city can be found south of the town Değirmendere Fev in the Menderes district of Izmir Province, Turkey.</p><br>
<p>The citys name comes from the word κολοφών, "summit", which is also the origin of the bibliographic term "colophon", in the metaphorical sense of a crowning touch&#39;, as it was sited along a ridgeline. The term colophony for rosin comes from the term colophonia resina, that is, resin from the pine trees of Colophon, which was highly valued for the strings of musical instruments.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>According to Apollodorus and Proclus, the mythical seer Calchas died at Colophon after the end of the Trojan War. Strabo names Clarus as the place of his death, which would later be a cult center in the territory of Colophon. An oracle had it that he would die when he would meet a better seer than himself. As Calchas and the other heroes on their way home from Troy came upon the seer Mopsus in Colophon, the two competed in their mantic qualities. Calchas couldnt equal Mopsus skills as a seer, being a son of Apollo and Manto, so he died.</p><br>
<p>In Greek antiquity two sons of Codrus, King of Athens, established a colony there. It was the birthplace of the philosopher Xenophanes and the poets Antimachus and Mimnermus.</p><br>
<p>Colophon was the strongest of the Ionian cities and renowned both for its cavalry and for the inhabitants&#39; luxurious lifestyle, until Gyges of Lydia conquered it in the 7th century BC. Colophon then went into decline and was eclipsed by neighbouring Ephesus and by the rising naval power of Ionia, Miletus.</p><br>
<p>After the death of Alexander the Great, Perdiccas expelled the Athenian settlers on Samos to Colophon, including the family of Epicurus, who joined them there after completing his military service.</p><br>
<p>In the 3rd century BC, it was destroyed by Lysimachus—a Macedonian officer, one of the successors (Diadochi) of Alexander the Great, later a king (306 BC) in Thrace and Asia Minor, during the same era when he nearly destroyed (and did depopulate by forced expulsion) the neighboring Ionian League city of Lebedos.</p><br>
<p>Notium served as the port, and in the neighbourhood was the village of Clarus, with its famous temple and oracle of Apollo Clarius, where Calchas vied with Mopsus in divinatory science.</p><br>
<p>In Roman times, after Lysimachus&#39; conquest, Colophon failed to recover (unlike Lebedos) and lost its importance; actually, the name was transferred to the site of the port village of Notium, and the latter name disappeared between the Peloponnesian War and the time of Cicero (late 5th century BC to 1st century BC).</p><br>
<p>Additionally, the city, as a major location on the Ionic mainland, was cited as a possible home or birthplace for Homer. In his True History, Lucian lists it as a possible birthplace along with the island of Khios and the city of Smyrna, though Lucian&#39;s Homer claims to be from Babylon.</p><br>
<h2>Bishopric</h2><br>
<p>While tradition gave as the first bishops of the bishopric of Colophon Sosthenes ( and ) and Tychicus, the only ones historically documented are Eulalius or Euthalius, who was at the First Council of Ephesus in 431, and Alexander who was represented at the Council of Chalcedon in 451, without attending it personally.</p><br>
<p>Colophon continued to be listed in Notitiae Episcopatuum as late as the 12th or 13th century, as a suffragan of Ephesus, capital of the Roman province of Asia.</p><br>
<p>No longer a residential bishopric, Colophon is today listed by the Catholic Church as a titular see.</p><br>
<h2>Sources</h2><br>
<p>The Rise of the Greeks - Michael Grant (Guild Publishing) 1987 - pages 159, 345.</p><br>
<p>MacGillycuddy&#39;s Reeks is a mountain range in County Kerry, Ireland. Stretching slightly over 19 km, it includes the highest peaks in Ireland and the only peaks on the island that are over 1,000 m. The highest of these is Carrauntoohil at 1,038 m, followed by Beenkeragh at 1,010 m and Caher at 1,001 m. The range also includes many other Hewitts&mdash;peaks of over 2,000 feet. The mountains, part of the Armorican Highlands, are of glacial-carved Devonian sandstone and are on the Iveragh Peninsula near the Lakes of Killarney.</p><br>
<p>The name of the range dates to the 18th century. It is derived from the family or clan name Mac Giolla Mochuda (anglicised MacGillycuddy) who are a sept of the OSullivans. The clan chief, McGillycuddy of the Reeks, owned land in this part of Munster for a long time prior, and continued to do so until the end of the 20th century. The word reek is a Hiberno-English version of the English word rick, meaning a stack.</p><br>
<p>"MacGillycuddys Reeks" is also the name of a song on Warren Zevons album My Ride&#39;s Here. The song is set on the Iveragh Peninsula and also mentions the "Killarney shore" and Innisfallen. It was co-written by Ulster poet Paul Muldoon.</p><br>
<h2>List of peaks</h2><br>
<p>The Olympic Mountains are a mountain range on the Olympic Peninsula of western Washington in the United States. The mountains, part of the Pacific Coast Ranges, are not especially high – Mount Olympus is the highest at 7,962 ft; however, the eastern slopes rise out of Puget Sound from sea level and the western slopes are separated from the Pacific Ocean by the low-lying 20 to 35 km wide Pacific Ocean coastal plain. The western slopes are the wettest place in the 48 contiguous states. Most of the mountains are protected within the bounds of the Olympic National Park.</p><br>
<p>The mountains are spread out across four counties: Clallam, Grays Harbor, Jefferson and Mason. Physiographically, they are a section of the larger Pacific Border province, which is in turn a part of the larger Pacific Mountain System.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The Olympics have the form of a cluster of steep-sided peaks surrounded by heavily forested foothills and incised by deep valleys. They are surrounded by water on three sides, separated from the Pacific by the 20 to 35 km wide coastal plain. The general form of the range is more or less circular, or somewhat horseshoe-shaped, and the drainage pattern is radial.</p><br>
<p>Rivers radiate outwards to all sides. Clockwise from windward to leeward, the major watersheds are: Wynoochee, Humptulips, Quinault, Queets, Hoh, Bogachiel (all flowing into the Pacific; the Wynoochee by way of the Chehalis River, and the Humptulips by way of Grays Harbor), Lyre, Elwha, Dungeness (all flowing into the Strait of Juan de Fuca), Big Quilcene, Dosewallips, Duckabush, Hamma Hamma, and Skokomish (all flowing into Hood Canal).</p><br>
<h3>List of summits</h3><br>
<p>Principal summits:</p><br>
<p>Mount Olympus – highest point, eight glaciers</p><br>
<p>Mount Constance – largest peak visible from Seattle</p><br>
<p>Mount Anderson – West Peak of Mt Anderson is the hydrographic apex of the Olympic Mountains: From this peak, rivers flow outward to the Pacific Ocean, the Strait of Juan de Fuca, and Hood Canal.</p><br>
<p>The Brothers – double peak visible from Seattle</p><br>
<p>Mount Deception</p><br>
<p>Mount Washington</p><br>
<p>Mount Angeles</p><br>
<p>Mount Stone</p><br>
<p>Mount Ellinor</p><br>
<p>Other summits:</p><br>
<p>Boulder Peak – Peak located in the Lake Crescent and Elwha River area</p><br>
<p>Mount Storm King – located just to the south of Lake Crescent</p><br>
<p>Hurricane Ridge – road accessible summit near Port Angeles</p><br>
<h3>Other features</h3><br>
<p>Lost Pass</p><br>
<h3>Protected areas</h3><br>
<p>A large portion of the range is contained within the Olympic National Park. Of this 95% is part of the Olympic Wilderness.</p><br>
<p>The national park is surrounded on the south, east, and northwest sides by the Olympic National Forest, with five wilderness areas, and on the southwest side by the Clearwater State Forest with one Natural Area Preserve (Washington Department of Natural Resources), and the Quinault Indian Reservation. State parks and wildlife areas occur in the lower elevations.</p><br>
<h3>Climate</h3><br>
<p>Precipitation varies greatly throughout the range, from the wet western slopes to the arid eastern ridges. Mount Olympus, nearly 8,000 ft tall, is a mere 35 mi from the Pacific Ocean, one of the steepest reliefs globally and accounting for the high precipitation of the area, as much as 240 in of snow and rain on Mount Olympus. 140 to 170 in of rain falls on the Hoh Rainforest annually, receiving the most precipitation of anywhere in the continental United States. Areas to the northeast of the mountains are located in a rain shadow and receive as little as 16 in of precipitation. Annual precipitation increases to about 30 in on the edges of the rain shadow around Port Townsend, the San Juan Islands, and Everett.</p><br>
<p>As a consequence of the high precipitation is the large number of snowfields and glaciers, reaching down to 1,500 m (5,000 ft) above sea level. There are about 184 glaciers crowning the Olympics peaks. The most prominent glaciers are those on Mount Olympus covering approximately 10 square miles. Beyond the Olympic complex are the glaciers of Mount Carrie, the Bailey Range, Mount Christie, and Mount Anderson.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The Olympics are made up of obducted clastic wedge material and oceanic crust. They are primarily Eocene sandstones, turbidites, and basaltic oceanic crust. Unlike the Cascades, the Olympic Mountains are not volcanic, and contain no granite.</p><br>
<p>Millions of years ago, vents and fissures opened under the Pacific Ocean and lava flowed forth, creating huge underwater mountains and ranges called seamounts. The Farallon tectonic plate that formed a part of the Pacific Ocean floor (separate from the Pacific plate) inched eastward toward North America about 35 million years ago and most of the sea floor subducted beneath the continental land mass of the North America plate. Some of the sea floor, however, was scraped off and jammed against the mainland, creating the dome that was the forerunner of today&#39;s Olympics. In this particular case, the future Olympics were being jammed into a corner created by the Vancouver Island and North Cascades microcontinents attached to the western edge of the North America plate. This is thought to be the origin of the curved shape of the Olympic Basaltic Horseshoe, an arc of basalt running east along the Strait of Juan de Fuca, south along Hood Canal, and then west to Lake Quinault. Thrust-faulting northeast into the Vancouver Island/North Cascades corner pushes Olympic rock upward and southwestward, resulting in strata that appear to be standing on edge and that intermix with strata of different mineral composition. All this occurred under water; the Olympics began to rise above the sea only 10–20 million years ago.</p><br>
<p>The Olympics were shaped in the Pleistocene era by both alpine and continental glaciers advancing and retreating multiple times. The valleys of the Hoh, Queets, and Quinault rivers are typical U-shaped valleys carved by advancing alpine glaciers. Piles of talus and rockfall were created by retreating alpine glaciers. In the high mountains, the major rivers have their headwaters in alpine glacially carved cirques. During the Orting, followed by the Stuck, the Salmon Springs, and the Fraser glaciations, the vast continental Cordilleran ice sheet descended from Alaska south through British Columbia to the Olympics. The ice split into the Juan de Fuca and Puget ice lobes, as they encountered the resistant Olympic Mountains, carving out the current waterways and advanced as far south as present day Olympia. Ice flowed up the river valleys as far as 3,800 ft, carrying granitic glacial erratics with it.</p><br>
<h2>Ecology</h2><br>
<p>The mountains support a variety of different ecosystems, varying by elevation and relative east-west location, which influences the local climate, primarily precipitation.</p><br>
<h3>Flora</h3><br>
<p>Olympic forests are coniferous forests, unique among mesic temperate forests in their almost complete dominance by conifers rather than by hardwoods. The hardwood:conifer timber volume ratio is 1:1,000 in the maritime Pacific Northwest.</p><br>
<p>Another unique feature of Olympic forests is the size and longevity of the dominant tree species. Every coniferous genus represented here is represented by its largest and longest-lived species, and some of its second and third ranked species as well. Biomass accumulations are among the highest in the temperate forest zones.</p><br>
<p>Dominance of conifers is thought to be a result of the amount and timing of precipitation. The dry summers limit the growth of deciduous trees, such as most hardwoods. Evergreens, such as most conifers, are able to take advantage of the winter precipitation by continuing to photosynthesize through fall, winter and early spring, when deciduous trees are not able to photosynthesize. No deciduous conifers occur in the Olympics; larch trees occur in the much-drier eastern Cascades, but not in the Olympics or western Cascades. There is only one species of evergreen hardwood, the madrone.</p><br>
<p>The great size and age of conifers here is thought to be a result of the relative lack of frequent windstorms like tropical cyclones.</p><br>
<p>Along the western flanks of the mountains the increased orographic precipitation supports temperate rain forests in the Quinault, Queets, Hoh, and Bogachiel river valleys at low elevations. Protection by Olympic National Park, has allowed these rain forests to retain old growth trees, which supports a varied ecosystem. The Olympic rain forests are composed primarily of Sitka spruce and western hemlock, as are the surrounding lowland Sitka spruce forests, but are distinct in having a relative abundance of groves of bigleaf maple and vine maple, which support large epiphytic communities of mosses, lichens, ferns, and clubmosses; an abundance of nurse logs on the forest floor; a relatively open forest canopy and sparse shrub layer; and a dense moss layer on the forest floor. The rain forests are the wintering grounds for herds of Roosevelt elk and it is thought that browsing by the elk is responsible for the open shrub layer and the dominance of Sitka spruce over western hemlock.</p><br>
<p>The rain forests are just one type of forest found in the Olympic Mountains. Franklin and Dyrness Different plant associations are typical of one or more forest zones. For instance, the rain forest plant association described above is a member of the Sitka spruce forest zone.</p><br>
<p>The Sitka spruce zone is a lowland zone dominated by Sitka spruce and western hemlock. Precipitation is high, winters are mild, elevations are low. This forest zone is typically found at very low elevations on the western coastal plain and not in mountainous areas, although it can be found as high as 1,900 ft.</p><br>
<p>The lower elevations of the Olympic mountains, from roughly 480 ft up to 1,800 ft – 3,700 ft, feature the western hemlock zone, so-called because in most of the zone, the climax tree species would be western hemlock, even though much of the area is dominated by Douglas-fir. The reason for this is that Douglas-fir is an early seral species, and reproduces primarily after disturbances such as fire, logging, landslides, and windstorms. Western hemlock does not reproduce well on disturbed, exposed soil but germinates under the canopy of Douglas-fir, eventually overtaking the forest by shading out the Douglas-fir, which cannot reproduce in shade. In this zone, despite the high annual precipitation, drought stress in summer is sufficiently severe to limit growth of many species, such as Sitka spruce. Hardwoods such as bigleaf maple, willows, and red alder are limited to disturbed sites and riparian areas. red-cedar grows in the wettest sites. A very small area of the northeastern rain shadow contains the limited Douglas-fir zone, where it is too dry for western hemlock.</p><br>
<p>Moving up in elevation and moisture availability is the silver fir zone, up to about 3,900 ft. This zone gets more precipitation, and more of it as snow, than the lower, warmer, drier western hemlock zone. The cold and the snowpack combine to limit growth of lower-elevation plants. On the other hand, silver fir is less drought tolerant and less fire tolerant than either Douglas-fir or western hemlock. Slide alder (Alnus viridis sinuata) grows in snow-creep areas and avalanche chutes, along with yellow-cedar. Meadows of thimbleberry also grow in this zone, often intergrading between the slide alder chutes and the silver fir forest.</p><br>
<p>The next higher forest zone is the mountain hemlock zone, the highest forest zone in the Olympic mountains. In this zone most precipitation falls as snow and the snow-free growing season is very short. In the drier rainshadow side of the mountains, mountain hemlock is largely replaced by subalpine fir. At the higher elevations of the mountain hemlock/subalpine fir zone, tree cover is reduced to isolated stands of trees called tree islands, surrounded by subalpine meadows, in the subalpine parkland zone. Variations in substrate, topography, moisture, and snowpack depth and duration determine the vegetation community. Tree islands form on convex topography, which tends to gather less snow and shed it sooner than surrounding level or concave topography.</p><br>
<p>In the west, the subalpine zone is dominated by mountain hemlock. In the east and other drier areas, the subalpine zone is dominated by subalpine fir. It can occur with other trees, including mountain hemlock, silver fir, and yellow-cedar, but what characterizes these zones is the dominance of subalpine fir. These forests occur on the eastern ridges from 1300 to 1800 m.</p><br>
<p>In the Olympics, the treeline is between 5,000 ft and 6,000 ft but can be as low as under 4,000 ft in some places. Treeline is a function of both elevation and precipitation, particularly the amount of snow that falls each winter. The growing season for trees is relatively short in the higher elevations of the windward Olympics, compared to similar elevations in other mountain ranges, due to the large accumulations of snow that take a long time to melt each year.</p><br>
<p>Subalpine meadows in the Olympic mountains are of 5 types. Heath shrub meadows are dominated by ericaceous huckleberries and heathers. Lush herbaceous meadows are typified by Sitka valerian and showy sedge. Drier areas or those with longer snow cover grow dwarf sedge (Carex nigricans) or grass (Festuca viridis) meadows. Phlox diffusa typifies the low herbaceous meadows of pumice, talus and scree slopes and other rocky areas. American saw-wort is common in both mountain meadows and lower subalpine parklands in the Olympics.</p><br>
<p>Above timberline is the Alpine zone, not a forest zone since no trees can grow this high. The alpine zone in the Olympics is much more limited in size than in other temperate mountain ranges, from 1,800 m to 2,250 m. The high precipitation of the Olympics creates permanent snow and ice at lower elevations than is typical for other mountain ranges, cutting off the alpine vegetation zone. Most of the alpine vegetation is on the rain shadow side, in the northeastern Olympics, where there is less permanent snow and ice. Alpine vegetation is low herbaceous, typified by Phlox diffusa and species of Carex. Many of the Olympic Mountain’s endemic plants occur here, such as Piper’s bellflower (Campanula piperi) and Olympic violet (Viola flettii).</p><br>
<h4>Endemic Plants</h4><br>
<p>Olympic Mountain milkvetch (Astragalus australis var. olympicus)</p><br>
<p>Piper&#39;s bellflower (Campanula piperi)</p><br>
<p>Spotted coralroot (Corallorhiza maculata var. ozettensis)</p><br>
<p>Flett&#39;s fleabane (Erigeron flettii)</p><br>
<p>Thompson&#39;s wandering fleabane (Erigeron peregrinus ssp. peregrinus var. thompsonii)</p><br>
<p>Quinault fawn lily (Erythronium quinaultensis)</p><br>
<p>Olympic rockmat (Petrophylum hendersonii)</p><br>
<p>Olympic Mountain groundsel (Senecio neowebsteri)</p><br>
<p>Olympic cut-leaf synthyris (Synthyris pinnatifida var. lanuginosa)</p><br>
<p>Olympic Mountain dandelion (Taraxacum olympicum)</p><br>
<p>Olympic violet (Viola flettii)</p><br>
<h3>Fauna</h3><br>
<p>Mammals extirpated from the Olympic Mountains are the fisher (Martes pennanti) and the gray wolf (Canis lupus). The fisher was declared extirpated from Washington State when no fishers were detected during statewide carnivore surveys in the 1990s and 2000s. A reintroduction project was initiated in 2007, in partnership with Olympic National Park. The gray wolf was extirpated from Washington State in the early 20th century. The last wolf documented in the Olympics was trapped in 1920.</p><br>
<p>The gray wolf is listed as endangered by the US Fish and Wildlife Service and the fisher is listed as state endangered by the Washington Fish and Wildlife Commission.</p><br>
<p>Previous to the extirpation of the gray wolf, coyotes (Canis latrans) occurred in the lowlands of the Olympic peninsula but not in the mountains. With the absence of wolves, coyotes have been moving up into the higher elevations of the mountains and may be responsible for population declines in the Olympic marmot.</p><br>
<p>The mountain goat (Oreamnos americanus) is not native to the Olympic Mountains but was introduced for hunting in the 1920s by a coalition of the Forest Service, the Clallam County Game Warden, and the State Game Commission. Mountain goats in the Olympics have been associated with damage to alpine vegetation and soil erosion, and have shown aggression towards people. In 1999, a mountain goat gored a hiker at the summit of Mt. Ellinor in Olympic National Forest, and in 2010, a mountain goat fatally gored a hiker on the Klahane Ridge trail in Olympic National Park. In 2012, the trail to Mt. Ellinor was closed in summer due to aggressive goats, re-opening in the fall.</p><br>
<p>Roosevelt elk Cervus canadensis roosevelti range along the Pacific coast from the Russian River to Vancouver Island. Olympic and Vancouver Island elk are some of the last pure Roosevelt elk herds left; those in the Cascades have mixed with Rocky Mountain elk. Olympic National Park has the largest population of Roosevelt elk in the world. Some herds spend winter in lowland valleys, summer in high country, in subalpine meadows. Other herds live year-round in lowland forests and meadows. Elk prefer more humid areas, the Sitka spruce, wet western hemlock, and mountain hemlock zones. Elk browsing is believed to be responsible for the open park-like structure of the Olympic rainforests; the elk graze on hemlock and shrubs, leaving the Sitka spruce to grow. Elk browsing also increases diversity of grasses and forbs. Elk exclosure experiments in rainforest valleys show more species of vegetation growing outside the exclosures, where elk browse, than inside; while there are more brush and saplings inside exclosures, there are more grasses and forbs outside. Elk browsing improves forage for other herbivores like deer, voles and snowshoe hares. Elk prefer old growth forest and young alder groves over the large, even-aged plantations common on commercial timber land, although they will use small, recent clearcuts where they mimic natural forest openings.</p><br>
<p>Both the Press and O’Neil expeditions were impressed by the quantity and tameness of the elk. Both expedition leaders prohibited shooting the elk and deer except when the expedition was in need of meat. The Olympic National Monument was formed to protect the elk after the herds were reduced to less than 2000 animals. The population rebounded, and in 1937 a hunting season for elk was opened in the Hoh River valley. 2000 to 4000 hunters came, several times as many as expected. One hunter was accidentally shot and died. A second hunter drowned in the Hoh River. A pack horse was shot. The Hoh River flooded, stranding hunters and washing away their camps. Forest Service and State Game personnel were overwhelmed with rescue efforts (lost, stranded, or injured hunters) and dispute resolution. Over 800 elk were killed, some left lying in the forest. Proponents of a national park used the 1937 elk hunt as an argument in favor of permanent protection for Olympic’s elk herds. Not all the elk herds are protected inside the national park. Some migrate in and out of the park, and others live entirely outside the park; these are subject to regulated hunting when not in the national park.</p><br>
<p>Blacktail deer (Odocoileus hemionus columbianus) prefer drier areas than elk, such as the dry western hemlock, Douglas-fir, and subalpine fir zones. Similar to the elk, blacktail deer winter in lowlands, or along south-facing ridges, and summer in the high country meadows.</p><br>
<p>American black bear (Ursus americanus) are numerous in the Olympics. Olympic bears eat salmon, rodents, huckleberries, tree bark, insects, and deer or elk carcasses.</p><br>
<p>Cougar (Felis concolor) is the largest carnivore in the Olympics. Their main prey are deer and elk but they also hunt porcupines and insects. They are rarely seen in the Olympics but are thought to be widespread and relatively common.</p><br>
<p>Mountain beaver (Aplodontia rufa) is a large primitive rodent endemic to the Pacific Northwest. They are common in the Olympics, preferring wet scrubby thickets and second growth timber.</p><br>
<p>Banana slug (Ariolimax columbianus) is another Pacific Northwest endemic. Slugs are abundant in the Olympic forests, outweighing mammals and birds combined. They thrive in the cool damp shade of the forests. The banana slug is the largest and most conspicuous of Olympic slugs.</p><br>
<p>Northern spotted owl (Strix occidentalis caurina) is an old-growth dependent species and is listed as threatened under the Endangered Species Act. The majority of spotted owls on the Olympic peninsula, along with the largest preserve of temperate old-growth forest, live in the national park. Spotted owls prey on flying squirrels and snowshoe hares, and are themselves preyed on by great horned owls Bubo virginianus. The density of the canopy of an old-growth forest gives the spotted owls some protection from the larger, less agile great horned owls.</p><br>
<p>Rufous hummingbird (Selasphorus rufus) is the only hummingbird in the Olympics. They overwinter in Mexico and southern California, arriving in the Olympics in February or March with the flowering of the Indian plum Oemleria cerasifera.</p><br>
<p>Harlequin duck (Histrionicus histrionicus) breeds in fast-moving mountain streams in the Olympics. They spend the rest of the year in coastal waters.</p><br>
<p>Osprey (Pandion haliaetus) and bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) fish in Olympic rivers, nesting in large old trees. Both are relatively common, the bald eagle more so along the coast than in the mountains.</p><br>
<p>Olympic rivers are dominated by Pacific salmonids, the Oncorhynchus. Chinook, coho, pink, rainbow and steelhead, and cutthroat all spawn in Olympic rivers. Chum and sockeye also live in coastal Olympic peninsula rivers but do not reach into the mountains. Bull trout (Salvelinus confluentus) and Dolly Varden trout (S. malma) also live in Olympic rivers.</p><br>
<h4>Endemic fauna</h4><br>
<p>There are at least 16 endemic animal species.</p><br>
<p>Mammals</p><br>
<p>Olympic marmot (Marmota olympus)</p><br>
<p>Olympic chipmunk (Tamius amoenus caurinus)</p><br>
<p>Olympic snow mole (Scapanus townsendii olympicus)</p><br>
<p>Mazama pocket gopher (Thomomys mazama melanops)</p><br>
<p>Olympic ermine (Mustela erminea olympica)</p><br>
<p>Amphibians</p><br>
<p>Olympic torrent salamander (Rhyacotriton olympicus)</p><br>
<p>Fish</p><br>
<p>Olympic mudminnow (Novumbra hubbsi)</p><br>
<p>Beardslee rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss irideus)</p><br>
<p>Crescenti cutthroat trout (Oncorhynchus clarki clarki)</p><br>
<p>Insects</p><br>
<p>Hulbert&#39;s skipper butterfly (Hesperia comma hulbirti)</p><br>
<p>Olympic grasshopper (Nisquallia olympica)</p><br>
<p>Mann&#39;s gazelle beetle (Nebria dammanni)</p><br>
<p>Quileute gazelle beetle (Nebria acuta quileute)</p><br>
<p>Tiger beetle (Cicindela bellissima frechini)</p><br>
<p>Molluscs</p><br>
<p>Arionid slug (Hemphillia dromedarius)</p><br>
<p>Arionid jumping slug (Hemphillia burringtoni)</p><br>
<p>Near-endemics, those that occur in the Olympics as well as other parts of a limited range, include the Copes giant salamander (Dicamptodon copei), and the Van Dykes salamander (Plethodon vandykei,) both found primarily in the Olympics and other mountainous areas of western Washington; the tailed frog (Ascaphus truei), of Pacific Northwest mountain streams, and the mountain beaver (Aplodontia rufa) of the coastal Pacific Northwest.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Prehistory</h3><br>
<p>For the original inhabitants of the Olympic Peninsula, the highest peaks of the mountains were the only refuges during the Great Floods at the beginning of time. For the Elwha Klallam people, that peak was Mount Carrie; for the Skokomish, it was a peak west of Mt. Ellinor. The Thunderbird figure of the Hoh tribe lived on Mt. Olympus, in a den under Blue Glacier. People in the Skokomish, Quinault, and Elwha watersheds regularly traveled into the high country to hunt elk, gather huckleberries and beargrass, and perform spirit quests. Trails across the mountains allowed members of the various tribes to visit and trade with each other. The cross-Olympic expeditions of the 1890s found tree blazes that they took to mark Indian trails.</p><br>
<p>Archeological evidence shows that the Olympic Mountains were inhabited by Paleolithic hunters after the retreat of the Cordilleran Ice Sheet. Stone tools in the Deer Park area date to 7600 years ago, prior to the volcanic eruption of Mount Mazama. Similar tools have been found near Lake Cushman and throughout the Olympic subalpine meadows and ridges, as well as in coastal areas. In addition, a fragment of a woven basket found in the Olympic subalpine of Obstruction Point was radiocarbon dated to nearly 3000 years ago.</p><br>
<p>The mountains were originally called "Sun-a-do" by the Duwamish Indians, while the first European to see them, the Spanish navigator Juan Pérez, named Mount Olympus "Santa Rosalia", in 1774. But the English captain John Meares, seeing them in 1788, thought he would honor the Greek explorer Juan de Fuca who claimed to have found the fabled Northwest passage nearby by naming the mountain after the mythical home of Greek Gods which is "Mount Olympus" in Greece. Various names for the mountains were used based on the name Mount Olympus, including the Olympic Range, the Olympian Mountains, and the Olympus Range. Alternate proposals never caught on, and in 1864 the Seattle Weekly Gazette persuaded the government to make the present-day name official, although other names continued to be used.</p><br>
<h3>First O'Neil Expedition, 1885</h3><br>
<p>Though readily visible from many parts of western Washington, especially Seattle, the interior was almost entirely unexplored until 1885, when 2nd Lt. Joseph P. O&#39;Neil of the 14th Infantry, stationed at Fort Vancouver, led a small expedition into the northern Olympics from Port Angeles. O’Neil led an expedition of 3 enlisted men, 2 civilian engineers, and 8 mules out of Port Angeles in July 1885. The expedition cut a mule trail from Port Angeles up to Hurricane Ridge and camped near the current site of the national park visitor center. From there, they explored and built trail to the east and south, exploring the upper Dungeness and Dosewallips River watersheds, and to Cameron Basin near Mt. Anderson. O’Neil was recalled by the Army in August to be transferred to Fort Leavenworth in Kansas, and the expedition had to return to Fort Townsend. The Obstruction Peak Road and portions of the Hurricane Ridge Road and the Klahane Ridge, Grand Pass and Lost Pass trails in Olympic National Park originated with the mule trails built by this expedition.</p><br>
<p>In late 1889, Charles A. Gilman and his son Samuel explored the East Fork Quinault up to its headwaters, but chose to return the way they came rather than cross over the mountains.</p><br>
<h3>Press Expedition 1889–90</h3><br>
<p>The first crossing of the Olympic Mountains was done from November 1889 through May 1890 by the Press Expedition, a group of 5 men led by Canadian James H. Christie, sponsored by the Seattle newspaper Press, which ascended the Elwha River and descended the North Fork Quinault River. The Press party included 2 mules, which both died in separate incidents, and 4 dogs, 1 of which was killed by an elk. The Press Expedition crossed in winter, in order to beat ONeils planned expedition for the summer of 1890. Initially the expedition built a boat on the Elwha to tow their cargo upriver, but the icy water and deep snow covering boulders and fallen trees made this mode of transportation very slow – after 2 weeks, the men had towed the boat 4 mi. It did, however, carry cargo where the mules could not. Christie and his men abandoned the boat and switched to the mules when they reached the head of navigation on the Elwha, but the mules both died in separate incidents fairly early in the expedition. Deep snow, steep slopes, and fallen trees made travel extremely difficult for the mules, along with lack of forage.</p><br>
<p>The expedition carried minimal food, expecting to find game. In the lowlands, game and fish were plentiful, but the heavy snow that winter drove game out of the mountains and for long stretches in the high mountains, the men were reduced to eating ‘flour soup’. Unlike O’Neil’s military expeditions, the Press Expedition had no resupply line. Once into the high mountains and the deep snow, with no game, they went weeks with no meat and little to eat besides flour and beans. The men carried all the cargo on their own backs through one of the roughest and most labyrinthine sections of the high mountains, through snow 10 to 15 ft deep. On climbing a peak to get a view of the area, Christie estimated the snow at the peak to be 25 ft deep. Avalanches occurred on a daily basis. Crossing Low Divide between the upper Elwha and the headwaters of the North Fork Quinault, the men climbed a vertical cliff, requiring Christie to climb to a ledge and then lower a rope to the men below. Packs, dogs, and men were hauled up the cliff by rope. Once on the Quinault side of the divide, the men shot and ate a bear, the first meat they had had for several weeks of strenuous winter mountain travel.</p><br>
<p>Deep snow prevented proper trail building for much of their route, although they did cut a rough trail along the lower reach of the Elwha River, and blazed trees along their route. They used elk trails wherever possible, and walked in the river when there was no other way through due to steep terrain or dense brush. It took the expedition four months of slogging through dense brush and windthrows, swamps, steep canyons and deep, wet, slushy snow just to reach the inner mountains. Once in the high mountains, the relief was so precipitous that the men estimated they traveled up and down as much as 6 mi to cover 2 mi horizontal miles.</p><br>
<p>Once on the mainstem Quinault River, the men built a raft, but it wrecked on a logjam. The men saved the dogs and the one pack that contained their maps, photographs, and records made along the route, but lost all their food, armaments, utensils, fishing tackle, shelter, and the few mineral and plant specimens and animal skins they had collected; and the men were split on opposite sides of the river, unable to reach each other. They continued walking down the river, eating salmonberry shoots and spruce bark, until a settler and a Quinault Indian guide canoeing to Lake Quinault rescued them. When the O’Neil expedition of 1890 reached the mainstem Quinault River a few months later, they found some of the items the Press Expedition had lost in the wreck. The settler and neighboring Indians took the expedition across Lake Quinault and down the lower river to the coast in mid May, nearly six months after they left Port Angeles. From the mouth of the Quinault they traveled to Aberdeen and then to Seattle. Their account of their expedition, along with photographs and a full-page map, was printed in a special edition of the Press on July 16, 1890. The Elwha River and North Fork Quinault trails in Olympic National Park follow the route of the Press Expedition, with a detour through the highest mountains and around the vertical cliff at Low Divide.</p><br>
<h3>Second O'Neil Expedition, 1890</h3><br>
<p>O&#39;Neil returned to Washington in 1887 and started planning another expedition. The Olympic Exploring Expedition, led by O’Neil, crossed the southern Olympics in the summer of 1890, ascending the North Fork Skokomish River and descending the East Fork Quinault River, building a mule trail the entire distance. This expedition was larger than the 1885 expedition, and would be resupplied by mule train from Hoodsport on Hood Canal, allowing time for scientific exploration of the area. The expedition consisted of 10 soldiers, 1 civilian mule packer, 4 civilian scientists from the Oregon Alpine Club, 11 mules, 1 bell mare to lead the mule train, and up to 4 dogs. The scientists collected specimens of plants, animals, and minerals, which they shipped back to Portland by way of the mule train to Hoodsport. The majority of the party was assigned to cutting the mule trail, while 2 or 3 man exploring parties fanned out and scouts went ahead. The scouts and side exploring parties scrambled up slopes on all fours, pulling themselves up by grabbing onto vegetation; descended similar slopes by sliding, deliberately or inadvertently; hacked and crawled through dense brush and windthrow; waded up rivers and streams when there was no other way through; felled trees to bridge ravines and rivers; and traversed narrow ridges of crumbling vertically-oriented shale. Hornet and yellow jacket wasp attacks were a daily occurrence, sending men scrambling and mules stampeding, one over a cliff to her death. Where the men crossed swamps, devils club thorns impaled the men and broke off in their skin, creating painful inflammations.</p><br>
<p>Once camped in the central mountains, O’Neil sent out small exploring parties to the Duckabush, Dosewallips, South Fork Skokomish, Wynoochee and Humptulips rivers, and to Mount Olympus and the Queets River. One party of 3 men climbed what they thought was Mount Olympus but was in reality one of the neighboring peaks, Athena II. A fourth member of the summit party became separated on the climb and ended up descending the Queets River alone, and was taken in by a Quinault Indian family. They were reluctant to believe that he had crossed the Olympics, not believing it was possible to do so; but they accepted his story when he was able to point out reference points on a map. (Many members of this expedition spoke Chinook jargon.) From their settlement, he was able to rejoin the expedition in Hoquiam. ONeils reports on his explorations resulted in his recommendation that the region be declared a national park.</p><br>
<h3>20th century</h3><br>
<p>Mount Olympus itself was not ascended until 1907, one of the first successes of The Mountaineers, which had been organized in Seattle just a few years earlier. A number of the more obscure and least-accessible peaks in the range were not ascended until the 1970s.</p><br>
<p>President Grover Cleveland protected the forests of the Olympic Peninsula with the Olympic Forest Reserve in 1897. Initially the reserve consisted of over 2 million acres, nearly the entire peninsula. Forest Service surveyors Dodwell and Rixon spent three years surveying, timber cruising, and mapping the new reserve. Their report, published in 1902, reported that most of the land was not suited to agriculture, but local politicians had already convinced President William McKinley to remove the most valuable lowland timber from the reserve, claiming it should be open to homesteading. Private timber companies paid ‘homesteaders’ to file claims on land that they then sold to the timber company. At the same time, commercial hunters reduced the Olympic elk herds to fewer than 2000 animals, prompting the state legislature to impose a temporary moratorium on elk hunting in the Olympics. The Forest Reserve was reorganized under Gifford Pinchot as the Olympic National Forest in 1905, with an emphasis on commercial utilization of timber and minerals and fire protection, as well as hunting and trapping. With the passing of the Antiquities Act in 1906, which allowed the president to designate national monuments, Mount Olympus National Monument, administered by the Forest Service, was proclaimed by Theodore Roosevelt in 1909 in order to protect the elk herds. In 1914, the new supervisor of the Forest Service, Henry Graves, made a trip to the Olympics to determine if commercial timber and minerals were being tied up in the national monument. As a result of Grave’s report, President Woodrow Wilson removed a third of a million acres from the monument.</p><br>
<p>The Elwha River was dammed in 1910 with construction of the Elwha Dam. A second dam was built a few miles upstream in 1927. Neither dam had any fish passage for the salmonid runs, completely eliminating salmonids from over 70 miles of river. Congress authorized removal of these dams in 1992, and work began in 2011.</p><br>
<p>The North Fork Skokomish River was dammed in the 1920s by the city of Tacoma, enlarging the original Lake Cushman by 600%. A settlement was reached in 2009 with the Skokomish Indian Tribe over damages to fisheries and game habitat, damages to tribal lands through flooding, and trespass on tribal lands for the power transmission line. As part of the settlement, migrating salmon will be trucked around the dam.</p><br>
<p>The Wynoochee River was dammed in the late 1960s by the Army Corps of Engineers for flood control, but in 1994 the dam was taken over by the city of Tacoma for power generation. Migrating salmon are trucked around the dam, and Tacoma Public Utilities funds mitigation for Roosevelt elk wintering habitat that was lost under the reservoir.</p><br>
<p>With the building of the Spruce Railroad during World War I and the completion of the Olympic Highway in 1931, logging in the Olympics intensified, along with demand for recreational facilities. During this period the Forest Service built roads and campgrounds and encouraged private businesses with special use permits to build tourist facilities such as a winter sports facility at Deer Park and the chalets in Enchanted Valley and at Low Divide. Special use permits were also issued for private summer cabins at Lakes Cushman and Quinault, and the Olympic Hot Springs resort. During the Great Depression, the Olympic National Forest used the Civilian Conservation Corps to build logging roads and railroads, bridges, campgrounds, shelters, fire lookouts, ranger stations, and a fish hatchery. They also fought fires and planted tree seedlings.</p><br>
<p>Pressure for a national park built with the acceleration of logging and road building. The Forest Service campaigned in peninsula logging and mill towns against the national park, and both the Forest Service and the Park Service jockeyed for public support and endorsement from various conservation groups for administration of the monument. In 1935, a special committee was convened on the national park proposal. The majority reported that the Olympics fully rated protection as a national park, but one member issued a minority report stating that public pressure for recreational facilities would require the Park Service to build roads, campgrounds, and chalets, thus negating any benefit from national park status. Both the Forest Service and the Park Service sponsored backcountry trips through the high Olympics that summer to promote their stewardship of the mountains.</p><br>
<p>In 1937, President Franklin D. Roosevelt visited the Olympics to determine their suitability as a national park, and was greeted in Port Angeles by more than 3000 local school children asking him to ‘give us our Olympic National Park’. He signed Olympic National Park into law in 1938. In 1953, the park was enlarged with the addition of the coastal strip, and more coastal areas along Lake Ozette were added in 1976. Also that year, UNESCO named the park an International Biosphere Reserve, and a World Heritage Site in 1981. In 1984, Congress designated 5 wilderness areas in the Olympic National Forest, and declared 95% of Olympic National Park a wilderness area in 1988.</p><br>
<p>The Giant&#39;s Causeway is an area of about 40,000 interlocking basalt columns, the result of an ancient volcanic eruption. It is located in County Antrim on the north coast of Northern Ireland, about three miles  northeast of the town of Bushmills.</p><br>
<p>It was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1986, and a national nature reserve in 1987 by the Department of the Environment for Northern Ireland. In a 2005 poll of Radio Times readers, the Giant&#39;s Causeway was named as the fourth greatest natural wonder in the United Kingdom. The tops of the columns form stepping stones that lead from the cliff foot and disappear under the sea. Most of the columns are hexagonal, although there are also some with four, five, seven or eight sides. The tallest are about 12 metres (39 ft) high, and the solidified lava in the cliffs is 28 metres (92 ft) thick in places.</p><br>
<p>Much of the Giant&#39;s Causeway and Causeway Coast World Heritage Site is today owned and managed by the National Trust and it is one of the most popular tourist attractions in Northern Ireland. The remainder of the site is owned by the Crown Estate and a number of private landowners.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>Around 50 to 60 million years ago, during the Paleocene Epoch, Antrim was subject to intense volcanic activity, when highly fluid molten basalt intruded through chalk beds to form an extensive lava plateau. As the lava cooled, contraction occurred. Horizontal contraction fractured in a similar way to drying mud, with the cracks propagating down as the mass cooled, leaving pillarlike structures, which are also fractured horizontally into "biscuits". In many cases the horizontal fracture has resulted in a bottom face that is convex while the upper face of the lower segment is concave, producing what are called "ball and socket" joints. The size of the columns is primarily determined by the speed at which lava from a volcanic eruption cools. The extensive fracture network produced the distinctive columns seen today. The basalts were originally part of a great volcanic plateau called the Thulean Plateau which formed during the Paleocene.</p><br>
<h2>Legend</h2><br>
<p>According to legend, the columns are the remains of a causeway built by a giant. The story goes that the Irish giant Fionn mac Cumhaill (Finn MacCool), from the Fenian Cycle of Gaelic mythology, was challenged to a fight by the Scottish giant Benandonner. Fionn accepted the challenge and built the causeway across the North Channel so that the two giants could meet. In one version of the story, Fionn defeats Benandonner. In another, Fionn hides from Benandonner when he realises that his foe is much bigger than he is. Fionns wife, Oonagh, disguises Fionn as a baby and tucks him in a cradle. When Benandonner sees the size of the baby, he reckons that its father, Fionn, must be a giant among giants. He flees back to Scotland in fright, destroying the causeway behind him so that Fionn would be unable to chase him down. Across the sea, there are identical basalt columns (a part of the same ancient lava flow) at Fingals Cave on the Scottish isle of Staffa, and it is possible that the story was influenced by this.</p><br>
<p>In overall Irish mythology, Fionn mac Cumhaill is not a giant but a hero with supernatural abilities. In Fairy and Folk Tales of the Irish Peasantry (1888) it is noted that, over time, "the pagan gods of Ireland grew smaller and smaller in the popular imagination, until they turned into the fairies; the pagan heroes grew bigger and bigger, until they turned into the giants". There are no surviving pre-Christian stories about the Giant&#39;s Causeway, but it may have originally been associated with the Fomorians (Fomhóraigh); the Irish name Clochán na bhFomhóraigh or Clochán na bhFomhórach means "stepping stones of the Fomhóraigh". The Fomhóraigh are a race of supernatural beings in Irish mythology who were sometimes described as giants and who may have originally been part of a pre-Christian pantheon.</p><br>
<h2>Tourism</h2><br>
<p>The discovery of the Giants Causeway is attributed to the Bishop of Derry who had visited the site in 1692. The existence of the site was announced to the wider world the following year by the presentation of a paper to the Royal Society from Sir Richard Bulkeley, a fellow of Trinity College, Dublin. The Giants Causeway received international attention when Dublin artist Susanna Drury made watercolour paintings of it in 1739; they won Drury the first award presented by the Royal Dublin Society in 1740 and were engraved in 1743. In 1765 an entry on the Causeway appeared in volume 12 of the French Encyclopédie, which was informed by the engravings of Drury&#39;s work; the engraving of the "East Prospect" itself appeared in a 1768 volume of plates published for the Encyclopédie. In the caption to the plates French geologist Nicolas Desmarest suggested, for the first time in print, that such structures were volcanic in origin.</p><br>
<p>The site first became popular with tourists during the nineteenth century, particularly after the opening of the Giant&#39;s Causeway Tramway, and only after the National Trust took over its care in the 1960s were some of the vestiges of commercialism removed. Visitors can walk over the basalt columns which are at the edge of the sea, a half-mile walk from the entrance to the site.</p><br>
<h3>Visitors' centre</h3><br>
<p>The Causeway was without a permanent visitors centre between 2000 and 2012, as the previous building, built in 1986, burned down in 2000. Public money was set aside to construct a new centre and, following an architectural competition, a proposal was accepted to build a new centre, designed by Dublin architectural practice Heneghan Peng, which was to be set into the ground to reduce impact to the landscape. A privately financed proposal was given preliminary approval in 2007 by the Environment Minister and DUP member Arlene Foster. However, the public money that had been allocated was frozen as a disagreement developed about the relationship between the private developer Seymour Sweeney and the DUP. It was also debated whether a private interest should be permitted to benefit from the site – given its cultural and economic importance and as it is largely owned by the National Trust. Coleraine Borough Council voted against the private plans and in favour of a public development project, and Moyle District Council similarly signalled its displeasure and gave the land on which the previous visitors centre stood to the National Trust. This gave the Trust control of both the Causeway and surrounding land. Ultimately Mr. Sweeney dropped a legal challenge to the publicly funded plan. In 2007, the Giants Causeway visitor centre was awarded with a National Award of Excellence for Best Tour Visit&#39; by CIE Tours International, for the 5th consecutive year.</p><br>
<p>The new visitor centre was officially opened by First Minister Peter Robinson and Deputy First Minister Martin McGuinness in July 2012, with funding having been raised from the National Trust, the Northern Ireland Tourist Board, the Heritage Lottery Fund and public donations. Since opening, the new visitor centre has garnered very mixed reviews from those visiting the Causeway for its pricing, design, contents and placement across the causeway walk descent.</p><br>
<p>There was some controversy regarding the content of some exhibits in the visitor centre, which refer to the Young Earth Creationist view of the age of the Earth. While these inclusions were welcomed by the chairman of the Northern Irish evangelical group, the Caleb Foundation, the National Trust stated that the inclusions formed only a small part of the exhibition and that the Trust "fully supports the scientific explanation for the creation of the stones 60 million years ago." An online campaign to remove creationist material was launched in 2012, and following this, the Trust carried out a review and concluded that they should be amended to have the scientific explanation on the causeways origin as their primary emphasis. Creationist explanations are still mentioned, but presented as a traditional belief of some religious communities rather than a competing explanation for the causeways origins.</p><br>
<h2>Notable features</h2><br>
<p>Some of the structures in the area, having been subject to several million years of weathering, resemble objects, such as the Organ and Giants Boot structures. Other features include many reddish, weathered low columns known as Giants Eyes, created by the displacement of basalt boulders; the Shepherds Steps; the Honeycomb; the Giants Harp; the Chimney Stacks; the Giants Gate and the Camel&#39;s Hump.</p><br>
<h2>Flora and fauna</h2><br>
<p>The area is a haven for seabirds such as fulmar, petrel, cormorant, shag, redshank, guillemot and razorbill, while the weathered rock formations host a number of plants including sea spleenwort, hare&#39;s-foot trefoil, vernal squill, sea fescue and frog orchid.</p><br>
<p>A stromatolite colony was reportedly found at the Giants Causeway in October 2011 – an unusual find, as stromatolites are more commonly found in warmer waters with higher saline content than that found at the causeway.</p><br>
<h2>Similar structures</h2><br>
<p>Although the basaltic columns of the Giant&#39;s Causeway are impressive, they are not unique. Basalt columns are a common volcanic feature, and they occur on many scales (because faster cooling produces smaller columns).</p><br>
<h2>Railway access</h2><br>
<p>The Belfast-Derry railway line run by Northern Ireland Railways connects to Coleraine and along the Coleraine-Portrush branch line to Portrush. Local Ulsterbus provide connections to the railway stations. There is a scenic walk of 7 miles from Portrush alongside Dunluce Castle and the Giant&#39;s Causeway and Bushmills Railway.</p><br>
<p>Green Bay is an arm of Lake Michigan, located along the south coast of Michigan&#39;s Upper Peninsula and the east coast of Wisconsin. It is separated from the rest of the lake by the Door Peninsula in Wisconsin, the Garden Peninsula in Michigan, and the chain of islands between them, all formed by the Niagara Escarpment. Green Bay is some 120 mi long, with a width ranging from about 10 mi to 20 mi. It is 1,626 square miles in area.</p><br>
<p>At the southern end of the bay is the city of Green Bay, Wisconsin, where the Fox River enters the bay. The Leo Frigo Memorial Bridge (formerly known as the Tower Drive bridge) spans the point where the bay ends and the Fox River begins. Locally, the bay is often called the Bay of Green Bay to distinguish the bay from the city. The bay is navigable by large ships.</p><br>
<p>The bay is located in parts of five counties in Wisconsin (Brown, Door, Kewaunee, Marinette, Oconto), and two in Michigan (Delta, Menominee).</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Oconto, Green Bay is home to Copper Culture State Park, which has remains dated to around 5000-6000 BC. It is a burial ground of the Copper Culture Indians. This burial ground is considered to be the oldest cemetery in Wisconsin and one of the oldest in the nation.</p><br>
<p>The French Jesuit, Roman Catholic priest, and missionary, Father Claude-Jean Allouez said the first Mass in Oconto on December 3, 1669.</p><br>
<p>The bay was named la baie des Puants (literally, "the bay of the Stinks") by the French explorer Jean Nicolet as shown on many French maps of the 17th and 18th centuries. According to George R. Stewart, the French received the name from their Indian guides, who called the natives living near Green Bay by a derogatory word meaning "Stinkers", thus the bay was the "Bay of the Stinkers", but this name perplexed the French, and Jacques Marquette thought the name might relate to the smell of the swamps, when he explored the area in May 1673. His fellow explorer Louis Joliet, with two canoes and five voyageurs of French-Indian ancestry (Métis) were on their way to find the Mississippi river They travelled up the Fox River, nearly to its headwaters. The French also called the bay Baie Verte, and the English kept this name as Green Bay.</p><br>
<p>Fort Christina  was the first Swedish settlement in North America and the principal settlement of the New Sweden colony. Built in 1638 and named after Queen Christina of Sweden, it was located approximately 1 mi  east of the present downtown Wilmington, Delaware, at the confluence of the Brandywine River and the Christina River, approximately 2 mi  upstream from the mouth of the Christina on the Delaware River.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Following plans by King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden to establish a Swedish colony in North America, the Swedes arrived in Delaware Bay on March 29, 1638 aboard the ships Kalmar Nyckel and Fogel Grip under the command of Peter Minuit, the former director of the New Netherland colony. They landed at a spot along the Christina River at a stone outcropping which formed a natural wharf, known as "The Rocks." Minuit selected the site on the Christina River near the Delaware as being optimal for trade in beaver pelts with the local Lenape. He also considered the site easily defensible, and he ordered the construction of an earthwork fort around the Rocks.</p><br>
<p>At the time, the Dutch had claimed the area south to the Delaware (then called "South River"). The Swedes claimed an area for the Realm of Sweden on the south side of the Delaware that encompassed much of the present-day USA state of Delaware, eventually including parts of present-day southeastern Pennsylvania and southern New Jersey on the north side of the river.</p><br>
<p>The fort&#39;s earthworks were strengthened in 1640 by Governor Peter Hollander Ridder to help defend against the possibility of Dutch or Native American attacks. As additional colonists arrived from Sweden in the years following the landing, homes and farms began to be built outside of the confines of the fort. The fort was rebuilt entirely in 1647.</p><br>
<p>The colony of New Sweden remained in constant friction with the Dutch. In 1651, the Dutch under Peter Stuyvesant established Fort Casimir at present-day New Castle, only 7 mi (12 km) south of Fort Christina, in order to menace the Swedish settlement. In 1654, the Swedes captured Fort Casimir under the orders of Governor Johan Risingh. Risingh, fearing reprisals, strengthened the defenses of Fort Christina by adding a wooden palisade around the earthworks.</p><br>
<p>In 1655, the Dutch under Stuyvesant returned in force and laid siege to Fort Christina. The fort&#39;s surrender after ten days ended the official Swedish colonial presence in North America, though most of the colonists remained and were allowed to continue their linguistic and religious practices by the Dutch. Stuyvesant renamed Fort Christina as Fort Altena.</p><br>
<p>The land remained as part of New Netherland until it became part of the English possessions when an English fleet invaded the area in 1664. Under English rule, the original Swedish fortifications around the Rocks fell into disrepair and eventually vanished entirely.</p><br>
<p>New fortifications were built by the Americans on the same site during the Revolutionary period, and they established Fort Union here during the War of 1812. Men involved in the defense of the fort included Caesar Augustus Rodney and James A. Bayard, Sr.</p><br>
<h2>Fort Christina National Historic Landmark</h2><br>
<p>In 1938, to celebrate the 300th anniversary of the Swedish colonization of the area, the state of Delaware created a park which contained the Rocks and the site of the former forts. The dedication was attended by USA President Franklin D. Roosevelt, Crown Prince Gustav Adolf, Crown Princess Louise, and Prince Bertil. The Prince presented a gift from their homeland: a monument, topped by a replica of the Kalmar Nyckel, designed by Swedish sculptor Carl Milles.</p><br>
<p>During the ceremony, the Prince spoke of the site&#39;s significance to both countries:</p><br>
<p>The monument to be unveiled today is a gift from the people of Sweden to the people of the United States. The funds were raised through public subscription, wherein several hundred thousands of our citizens took part. I believe that amongst these subscribers, many had across the Atlantic brothers and sisters, parents and children. In contributing, they must have felt the links, which connect them and all of us with your great country, where so many of the citizens are either of Swedish birth or purely or partly of Swedish descent.</p><br>
<p>Near this spot, the Fort Christina State Park, was the first permanent settlement in the Delaware Valley. The Swedes, who landed here 300 years ago, were few in number and of poor means. Yet thus began the relations between our two Nations. Indeed, it is fitting that, together, we should commemorate that event, the inauguration of an unbroken period of international friendship.</p><br>
<p>We shall be reminded of these facts by the monument, cut by our famous sculptor, Carl Milles, in the black granite of Sweden. What memories are summoned forth at a moment like this. It is with pride we recall the memory of those almost legendary pioneers who braved the Atlantic in their little vessel, the Kalmar Nyckel, and who came to found the colony of New Sweden. That little band of gallant men and women have inscribed their names on the pages of history. Their deeds have been considered important enough for the President and Congress of the United States to extend an official invitation to Sweden to take part in the commemorative celebration of this historic event. We of Sweden are deeply moved by this mark of your esteem. It meets with our high appreciation and we offer you our most sincere thanks.</p><br>
<p>In our common acclaim of a historic event of 300 years ago, we stand united, as in our admiration of those early settlers from Sweden who were such worthy and resourceful people. Their love of freedom and their integrity they carried with them as a heritage from the land of their birth. We are happy to feel that in some measure they, as well as their successors during the intervening three centuries, were able to contribute to the development into greatness of your country, the country of their adoption. We are proud to think that their virtue and valor were brought down to their descendants and thus helped in the formation of those traits which we admire in the American people of the present day.</p><br>
<p>President Roosevelt, in accepting the monument, responded that, "I am fortunate in having personal association with the colony of Sweden, for one of my ancestors, William Beekman, served as vice director or governor of the colony of New Sweden on the Delaware River from 1658 to 1663."</p><br>
<p>In 2013, for the 375th anniversary of the Swedish landing, King Carl XVI Gustaf and Queen Silvia of Sweden, along with USA Vice President Joe Biden, reenacted the landing of the Kalmar Nyckel at Fort Christina Park on a replica of the original ship.</p><br>
<p>The site was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1961. In 2014, the First State National Historical Park was authorized to potentially include Fort Christina. It now is part of that park system.</p><br>
<p>From Memorial Day to Labor Day 2016 Fort Christina Park is open to the public free for visits from 10AM to 4PM Tuesday through Saturday and all of 4 July and Labor Day Weekends.</p><br>
<h2>Literary references</h2><br>
<p>American author and essayist Washington Irving (1783-1859) refers to Fort Christina in the opening pages of his short story "Rip van Winkle", describing the genealogy his Dutch protagonist:</p><br>
<p>Bygdøy, or Bygdø is a peninsula situated on the western side of Oslo, Norway. Administratively, Bygdøy belongs to the borough of Frogner. Bygdøy is also the home of five national museums as well as a royal estate.</p><br>
<h2>Tourism</h2><br>
<p>Bygdøy has parks and forests, and beaches including the Huk ordinary and nudist beach. In 1885, there were only 111 houses at Bygdøy, but today, most of the huge gardens are split into smaller patches of land, making Bygdøy largely a residential zone but retaining a profile of upscale demographics. Bygdøy Royal Estate (Bygdøy kongsgård), the official summer residence of the King of Norway and Oscarshall, site of the Queen Joséphine Gallery are also located here. Large parts of the area such as the Bygdøy Royal Estate are protected from development.</p><br>
<p>In the aftermath of the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, a memorial for the victims of the catastrophe was initiated by the Norwegian government. The memorial is located on the western shore of Bygdøy and was officially unveiled by HM King Harald V on 19 October 2007.</p><br>
<h2>Museums</h2><br>
<p>Bygdøy is also the site of five museums</p><br>
<p>Kon-Tiki Museum (Kon-Tiki Museet) – houses exhibits from the expeditions of Thor Heyerdahl</p><br>
<p>Norwegian Museum of Cultural History (Norsk Folkemuseum) – an open-air museum with buildings, relocated from towns and rural districts</p><br>
<p>Viking Ship Museum (Vikingskipshuset) – houses the Oseberg ship, Gokstad ship and Tune ship</p><br>
<p>Norwegian Maritime Museum (Norsk Maritimt Museum) – exhibits on coast culture and maritime history</p><br>
<p>Fram Museum (Frammuseet) – site of the ship Fram used by Roald Amundsen</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>The name is from Norse times (Bygðey). The first element is bygð built district (=area with houses and population) – in Norse times this was the only inhabited island in the inner part of Oslofjord. The last element is ey island. (Bygdøy was originally an island, but it became a peninsula because of post-glacial rebound.)</p><br>
<p>The island belonged to the Cistercian monastery at Hovedøya, but it was confiscated by the Crown in 1532. The name was then changed to "Ladegaardsøen". The first element in this new name was ladegård m farm to give a manor (here Akershus fortress) income. The last element -øen is the Danish finite form of ø island. The old name was revived in 1877. It was first spelled "Bygdø", but from 1918 officially spelled "Bygdøy". However, the name Bygdø is preferred by many of its inhabitants and other West End inhabitants.</p><br>
<h2>Transportation</h2><br>
<p>Bygdøy is accessible by bus, as the Oslo Public Transport Administration&#39;s bus line n.30 runs every 10 minutes from Oslo Central Station. Between April and October, the neighborhood can also be reached by the local public ferry departing from Aker Brygge every 30 minutes. Cars are allowed and there is a large parking lot in front of the Kon-Tiki Museum.</p><br>
<p>Norefjell is a mountain range in the Scandes Mountains system in Norway. It stretches between the valleys of Eggedal  and Hallingdal . It covers parts of the municipalities Flå, Sigdal, and Krødsherad, all in the county Buskerud.</p><br>
<p>The highest peaks within the mountain range are:</p><br>
<p>* Gråfjell, 1,468 m</p><br>
<p>* Høgevarde, 1,459 m</p><br>
<p>Norefjell Ski Resort is an alpine ski resort located in the municipality Krødsherad. It is about one and a half hours drive north of Oslo. Norefjell was host to the downhill and giant slalom competitions of the 1952 Winter Olympics.</p><br>
<p>The Norefjell mountain range is named after the old farm Nore (see Noresund). The last element is fjell meaning &#39;mountain&#39;.</p><br>
<p>The Karakoram, or Karakorum is a large mountain range spanning the borders of Pakistan, India, and China, with the northwest extremity of the range extending to Afghanistan and Tajikistan. It is located in the regions of Gilgit–Baltistan , Ladakh , and southern Xinjiang , and reaches the Wakhan Corridor . A part of the complex of ranges from the Hindu Kush to the Himalayan Range, it is one of the Greater Ranges of Asia. The Karakoram is home to the four most closely located peaks over 8000m in height on earth: K2, the second highest peak in the world at 8,611 m, Gasherbrum I, Broad Peak and Gasherbrum II.</p><br>
<p>The range is about 500 km in length, and is the most heavily glaciated part of the world outside the polar regions. The Siachen Glacier at 76 km and the Biafo Glacier at 63 km rank as the world&#39;s second and third longest glaciers outside the polar regions.</p><br>
<p>The Karakoram is bounded on the northeast by the edge of the Tibetan Plateau, and on the north by the Pamir Mountains. The southern boundary of the Karakoram is formed, west to east, by the Gilgit, Indus, and Shyok Rivers, which separate the range from the northwestern end of the Himalaya range proper as these rivers converge southwestward towards the plains of Pakistan.</p><br>
<p>The Tashkurghan National Nature Reserve and the Pamir Wetlands National Nature Reserve in the Karalorun and Pamir mountains have been nominated for inclusion in UNESCO in 2010 by the National Commission of the People&#39;s Republic of China for UNESCO and has tentatively been added to the list.</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<p>Karakoram is a Turkic term meaning black gravel. The name was first applied by local traders to the Karakoram Pass. Early European travellers, including William Moorcroft and George Hayward, started using the term for the range of mountains west of the pass, although they also used the term Muztagh (meaning, "Ice Mountain") for the range now known as Karakoram. Later terminology was influenced by the Survey of India, whose surveyor Thomas Montgomerie in the 1850s gave the labels K1 to K6 (K for Karakoram) to six high mountains visible from his station at Mount Haramukh in Kashmir.</p><br>
<h2>Exploration</h2><br>
<p>Due to its altitude and ruggedness, the Karakoram is much less inhabited than parts of the Himalayas further east. European explorers first visited early in the 19th century, followed by British surveyors starting in 1856.</p><br>
<p>The Muztagh Pass was crossed in 1887 by the expedition of Colonel Francis Younghusband and the valleys above the Hunza River were explored by General Sir George K. Cockerill in 1892. Explorations in the 1910s and 1920s established most of the geography of the region.</p><br>
<p>The name Karakoram was used in the early 20th century, for example by Kenneth Mason, for the range now known as the Baltoro Muztagh. The term is now used to refer to the entire range from the Batura Muztagh above Hunza in the west to the Saser Muztagh in the bend of the Shyok River in the east.</p><br>
<p>Floral surveys were carried out in the Shyok River catchment and from Panamik to Turtuk village by Chandra Prakash Kala during 1999 and 2000.</p><br>
<h2>Geology and glaciers</h2><br>
<p>The Karakoram is in one of the world&#39;s most geologically active areas, at the plate boundary between the Indo-Australian plate and the Eurasian plate.</p><br>
<p>A significant part, 28-50% of the Karakoram Range is glaciated, compared to the Himalaya (8-12%) and Alps (2.2%). Mountain glaciers may serve as an indicator of climate change, advancing and receding with long-term changes in temperature and precipitation. Karakoram glaciers are mostly stagnating or enlarging, because, unlike in the Himalayas, many Karakoram glaciers are covered in a layer of rubble which insulates the ice from the warmth of the sun. Where there is no such insulation, the rate of retreat is high.</p><br>
<h3>The Karakoram during the Ice Age</h3><br>
<p>In the last ice age, a connected series of glaciers stretched from western Tibet to Nanga Parbat, and from the Tarim basin to the Gilgit District. To the south, the Indus glacier was the main valley glacier, which flowed 120 km down from Nanga Parbat massif to 870 m elevation. In the north, the Karakoram glaciers joined those from the Kunlun Mountains and flowed down to 2,000 m in the Tarim basin.</p><br>
<p>While the current valley glaciers in the Karakoram reach a maximum length of 76 km, several of the ice-age valley glacier branches and main valley glaciers, had lengths up to 700 km. During the Ice age, the glacier snowline was about 1,300 m lower than today.</p><br>
<h2>Highest peaks</h2><br>
<p>The highest peaks of the Karakoram are:</p><br>
<p>K2: 8,611 m</p><br>
<p>Gasherbrum I: 8,080 m</p><br>
<p>Broad Peak: 8,051 m</p><br>
<p>Gasherbrum II: 8,035 m</p><br>
<p>Gasherbrum III: 7,952 m</p><br>
<p>Gasherbrum IV: 7,925 m</p><br>
<p>Distaghil Sar: 7,885 m</p><br>
<p>Kunyang Chhish: 7,852 m</p><br>
<p>Masherbrum I: 7,821 m</p><br>
<p>Batura I: 7,795 m</p><br>
<p>Rakaposhi: 7,788 m</p><br>
<p>Batura II: 7,762 m</p><br>
<p>Kanjut Sar: 7,760 m</p><br>
<p>Saltoro Kangri: 7,742 m</p><br>
<p>Batura III: 7,729 m</p><br>
<p>Saser Kangri: 7,672 m</p><br>
<p>Chogolisa: 7,665 m</p><br>
<p>Passu Sar: 7,478 m</p><br>
<p>Malubiting: 7,458 m</p><br>
<p>Sia Kangri: 7,442 m</p><br>
<p>K12: 7,428 m</p><br>
<p>Skil Brum: 7,410 m</p><br>
<p>Haramosh Peak: 7,397 m</p><br>
<p>Ultar Peak: 7,388 m</p><br>
<p>Momhil Sar: 7,343 m</p><br>
<p>Baintha Brakk: 7,285 m</p><br>
<p>Baltistan Peak: 7,282 m</p><br>
<p>Muztagh Tower: 7,273 m</p><br>
<p>Diran: 7,266 m</p><br>
<p>Gasherbrum V: 7,147 m</p><br>
<p>The majority of the highest peaks are in the Gilgit–Baltistan region of Pakistan. Baltistan has more than 100 mountain peaks exceeding 6,100 m height from sea level.</p><br>
<h3>K-numbers</h3><br>
<p>K1: Masherbrum</p><br>
<p>K2: an unnamed 8,611m peak at the head of the Godwin-Austen Glacier</p><br>
<p>K3: Gasherbrum IV</p><br>
<p>K3a: Gasherbrum III</p><br>
<p>K4: Gasherbrum II</p><br>
<p>K5: Gasherbrum I</p><br>
<p>K6: Baltistan Peak</p><br>
<p>K7: an unnamed 6,934m peak at the head of the Charakusa Valley</p><br>
<p>K8: an unnamed 7,422m peak on the western flank of the Siachen Glacier</p><br>
<p>K9: an unnamed 7,000m (approx) peak near Trango Towers</p><br>
<p>K10: Saltoro Kangri I</p><br>
<p>K11: Saltoro Kangri II</p><br>
<p>K12: an unnamed 7,428m subsidiary peak of Saltoro Kangri</p><br>
<p>K13: Dansam 6,666m peak south west of Saltoro Kangri</p><br>
<p>K22: Saser Kangri I</p><br>
<p>K25: Pastan Kangri 6,523m peak south of the Saltoro group</p><br>
<p>K35: Mamostong Kangri</p><br>
<h2>Subranges</h2><br>
<p>The naming and division of the various subranges of the Karakoram is not universally agreed upon. However, the following is a list of the most important subranges, following Jerzy Wala. The ranges are listed roughly west to east.</p><br>
<p>Batura Muztagh</p><br>
<p>Rakaposhi-Haramosh Mountains</p><br>
<p>Spantik-Sosbun Mountains</p><br>
<p>Hispar Muztagh</p><br>
<p>South Ghujerab Mountains</p><br>
<p>Panmah Muztagh</p><br>
<p>Wesm Mountains</p><br>
<p>Masherbrum Mountains</p><br>
<p>Baltoro Muztagh</p><br>
<p>Saltoro Mountains</p><br>
<p>Siachen Muztagh</p><br>
<p>Rimo Muztagh</p><br>
<p>Saser Muztagh</p><br>
<h2>Passes</h2><br>
<p>From west to east</p><br>
<p>Kilik Pass</p><br>
<p>Mintaka Pass</p><br>
<p>Khunjerab Pass (the highest paved international border crossing at 4,693 m)</p><br>
<p>Shimshal Pass</p><br>
<p>Mustagh Pass</p><br>
<p>Karakoram Pass</p><br>
<p>Sasser Pass</p><br>
<p>The Khunjerab Pass is the only motorable pass across the range. The Shimshal Pass (which does not cross an international border) is the only other pass still in regular use.</p><br>
<h2>Cultural references</h2><br>
<p>The Karakoram mountain range has been referred to in a number of novels and movies. Rudyard Kipling refers to the Karakoram mountain range in his novel Kim, which was first published in 1900. Marcel Ichac made a film titled Karakoram, chronicling a French expedition to the range in 1936. The film won the Silver Lion at the Venice Film Festival of 1937. Greg Mortenson details the Karakoram, and specifically K2 and the Balti, extensively in his book Three Cups of Tea, about his quest to build schools for children in the region. In the Gatchaman TV series, the Karakoram range houses Galactor&#39;s headquarters. K2 Kahani (The K2 Story) by Mustansar Hussain Tarar describes his experiences at K2 base camp.</p><br>
<p>The Brooks Range  is a mountain range in far northern North America stretching some 700 mi from west to east across northern Alaska into Canada&#39;s Yukon Territory. Reaching a peak elevation of 8,976 ft on Mount Isto, the range is believed to be approximately 126 million years old.</p><br>
<p>In the United States, these mountains are considered an extension of the Rocky Mountains, whereas in Canada they are considered separate, the northern border of the Rocky Mountains regarded as the Liard River far to the south in the province of British Columbia.</p><br>
<p>While the range is mostly uninhabited, the Dalton Highway and Trans-Alaska Pipeline System run through the Atigun Pass (1,415 m, 4,643 ft) on their way to the oil fields at Prudhoe Bay on Alaskas North Slope. The Alaska Native villages of Anaktuvuk and Arctic Village, as well as the very small communities of Coldfoot, Wiseman, Bettles, and Chandalar, are the ranges only settlements. In the far west, near the Wulik River in the De Long Mountains is the Red Dog mine, the largest zinc mine in the world.</p><br>
<p>The range was named by the United States Board on Geographic Names in 1925 after Alfred Hulse Brooks, chief USGS geologist for Alaska from 1903 to 1924.</p><br>
<p>Various historical records also referred to the range as the Arctic Mountains, Hooper Mountains, Meade Mountains and Meade River Mountains; the Canadian portion is still often referred to as the British Mountains, a part of Ivvavik National Park.</p><br>
<h2>Peaks</h2><br>
<p>Mount Isto 8,975.1 ft</p><br>
<p>Mount Hubley 8,914 ft</p><br>
<p>Mount Chamberlin 8,898.6 ft</p><br>
<p>Mount Michelson at 8,855 ft (2,699 m)</p><br>
<p>The Gates of Kiev at 7,775 ft (2,370 m), the highest point in the central part of the range, and</p><br>
<p>Black Mountain at 5,020 ft (1,530 m), the highest point in the far western part of the range.</p><br>
<p>Mount Doonerak 7,457 ft</p><br>
<p>Mount Igikpak 8,276 ft</p><br>
<p>Frigid Crags West Gate 5,501 ft</p><br>
<p>Boreal Mountain East Gate 6,654 ft</p><br>
<p>Limestack Mountain 6,250 ft</p><br>
<p>Cockedhat Mountain 7,410 ft</p><br>
<h2>Ecology</h2><br>
<p>The Brooks Range forms the northernmost drainage divide in North America, separating streams flowing into the Arctic Ocean and the North Pacific. The range roughly delineates the summer position of the Arctic front. It represents the northern extent of the tree line, with little beyond isolated balsam poplar stands occurring north of the continental drainage divide. trembling aspen and white spruce also occur north of the Brooks Range, though they are limited to sites that have been disturbed by human activity. Southern slopes have some cover of black spruce, Picea mariana, marking the northern limit of those trees. As one of the most remote and least-disturbed wildernesses of North America, the mountains are home to Dall sheep, grizzly bears, black bear, gray wolf, moose and porcupine caribou.</p><br>
<p>In Alaska, the Western Arctic Caribou herd (490,000 strong in 2004) traverses the Brooks Range in its annual migration. The smaller Central Arctic herd (32,000 in 2002), as well as the 123,000 animal Porcupine Caribou herd, likewise migrate through the Brooks range on their annual journeys in and out of the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge. The migration path of the Porcupine Caribou herd is the longest of any terrestrial mammal on earth.</p><br>
<h2>Paleontology</h2><br>
<p>Because the rocks of the range were formed in an ancient seabed, the Brooks Range contains fossils of marine organisms. In addition to the coral fossils shown at left, trilobites and brachiopods from the middle Cambrian have been found in the sandy limestones of the Central Brooks Range.</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>While other Alaskan ranges to the south and closer to the coast can receive 250 in to 500 in of snow, the average snow precipitation on the Brooks Range is reported at 30 in to 51 in.</p><br>
<p>As measured at the Anaktuvuk Pass weather station (elevation 770 m), the average summer temperatures are 3 &deg;C as a low and 16 &deg;C as a high. During the winter the average low is -30 &deg;C while the average high is -22 &deg;C.</p><br>
<h2>Films</h2><br>
<p>2007 - Gates of the Arctic: Alaska&#39;s Brooks Range</p><br>
<p>2008 - Alone Across Alaska: 1,000 Miles of Wilderness</p><br>
<p>2011 - (short film)</p><br>
<p>2014 - (short film)</p><br>
<p>Aconcagua is the highest mountain outside Asia, at 6,960.8 m, and by extension the highest point in both the Western Hemisphere and the Southern Hemisphere. It is located in the Andes mountain range, in the Mendoza Province, Argentina, and lies 112 kilometres  northwest of its capital, the city of Mendoza, about five kilometres from San Juan Province and 15 kilometres from the international border with Chile. The mountain itself lies entirely within Argentina, immediately east of Argentina&#39;s border with Chile. Its nearest higher neighbor is Tirich Mir in the Hindu Kush, 16,520 km away. It is one of the Seven Summits.</p><br>
<p>Aconcagua is bounded by the Valle de las Vacas to the north and east and the Valle de los Horcones Inferior to the west and south. The mountain and its surroundings are part of the Aconcagua Provincial Park. The mountain has a number of glaciers. The largest glacier is the Ventisquero Horcones Inferior at about 10 kilometres long, which descends from the south face to about 3600 metres in altitude near the Confluencia camp.</p><br>
<p>Two other large glacier systems are the Ventisquero de las Vacas Sur and Glaciar Este/Ventisquero Relinchos system at about 5 kilometres long. The most well-known is the north-eastern or Polish Glacier, as it is a common route of ascent.</p><br>
<h2>Origin of the name</h2><br>
<p>The origin of the name is contested; it is either from the Mapuche Aconca-Hue, which refers to the Aconcagua River and means "comes from the other side", the Quechua Ackon Cahuak, meaning "Sentinel of Stone", the Quechua Anco Cahuac, meaning "White Sentinel", or the Aymara Janqu Q&#39;awa, meaning "White Ravine".</p><br>
<h2>Geologic history</h2><br>
<p>The mountain was created by the subduction of the Nazca Plate beneath the South American Plate. Aconcagua, used to be an active stratovolcano (from the Late Cretaceous or Early Paleocene through the Miocene), and consisted of several volcanic complexes, on the edge of a basin with a shallow sea. However, sometime in the Miocene, about 8 to 10 million years ago, the subduction angle started to decrease resulting in a stop of the melting and more horizontal stresses between the oceanic plate and the continent, causing the thrust faults that lifted Aconcagua up off its volcanic root. The rocks found on Aconcagua’s flanks are all volcanic and consist of lavas, breccias and pyroclastics. The shallow marine basin had already formed earlier (Triassic), even before Aconcagua arose as a volcano. However, volcanism has been present in this region for as long as this basin was around and volcanic deposits interfinger with marine deposits throughout the sequence. The colorful greenish, blueish and grey deposits that can be seen in the Horcones Valley and south of Puente Del Inca, are carbonates, limestones, turbidites and evaporates that filled this basin. The red colored rocks are intrusions, cinder deposits and conglomerates of volcanic origin.</p><br>
<h2>Climbing</h2><br>
<p>In mountaineering terms, Aconcagua is technically an easy mountain if approached from the north, via the normal route. Aconcagua is arguably the highest non-technical mountain in the world, since the northern route does not absolutely require ropes, axes, and pins. Although the effects of altitude are severe (atmospheric pressure is 40% of sea-level at the summit), the use of supplemental oxygen is not common. Altitude sickness will affect most climbers to some extent, depending on the degree of acclimatization. Even if the normal climb is technically easy, multiple casualties occur every year on this mountain (in January 2009 alone five climbers died). This is due to the large numbers of climbers who make the attempt and because many climbers underestimate the objective risks of the elevation and of cold weather, which is the real challenge on this mountain. Given the weather conditions close to the summit, cold weather injuries are very common.</p><br>
<p>The Polish Glacier Traverse route, also known as the "Falso de los Polacos" route, crosses through the Vacas valley, ascends to the base of the Polish Glacier, then traverses across to the normal route for the final ascent to the summit. The third most popular route is by the Polish Glacier itself.</p><br>
<p>No hard records are kept about Aconcagua ascents, but the Provincial Park reports a success rate of about 60% of climbers who attempt the mountain. About 75% of climbers are foreigners and 25% are Argentinean. Among foreigners, the United States leads in number of climbers, followed by Germany and the UK. About 54% of climbers ascend the Normal Route, 43% up the Polish Glacier Route, and the remaining 3% on other routes.</p><br>
<p>The routes to the peak from the south and south-west ridges are more demanding and the south face climb is considered quite difficult.</p><br>
<h2>Camps</h2><br>
<p>The camp sites on the normal route are listed below (altitudes are approximate).</p><br>
<p>Puente del Inca, 2,740 m: A small village on the main road, with facilities including a lodge.</p><br>
<p>Confluencia, 3,380 m: A camp site a few hours into the national park.</p><br>
<p>Plaza de Mulas, 4,370 m: Base camp, claimed to be the second largest in the world (after Everest). There are several meal tents, showers and internet access. There is a lodge approx. 1 km from the main campsite across the glacier. At this camp, climbers are screened by a medical team to check if they are fit enough to continue the climb.</p><br>
<p>Camp Canadá, 5,050 m: A large ledge overlooking Plaza de Mulas.</p><br>
<p>Camp Alaska, 5,200 m: Called change of slope in Spanish, a small site as the slope from Plaza de Mulas to Nido de Cóndores lessens. Not commonly used.</p><br>
<p>Nido de Cóndores, 5,570 m: A large plateau with beautiful views. There is usually a park ranger camped here.</p><br>
<p>Camp Berlín, 5,940 m: The classic high camp, offering reasonable wind protection.</p><br>
<p>Camp Colera, 6,000 m: A larger, while slightly more exposed, camp situated directly at the north ridge near Camp Berlín, with growing popularity. In January 2011, a shelter was opened in Camp Colera for exclusive use in cases of emergency. The shelter is named Elena after Italian climber Elena Senin, who died in January 2009 shortly after reaching the summit, and whose family donated the shelter.</p><br>
<p>Several sites possible for camping or bivouac, including Piedras Blancas (~6100 m) and Independencia (~6350 m), are located above Colera; however, they are seldom used and offer little protection.</p><br>
<p>Summit attempts are usually made from a high camp at either Berlín or Colera, or from the lower camp at Nido de Cóndores. All camps are used frequently, namely Plaza de Mulas and Nido de Cóndores.</p><br>
<h3>History</h3><br>
<p>The first attempt to reach the summit of Aconcagua by a European was made in 1883 by a party led by the German geologist and explorer Paul Güssfeldt. Bribing porters with the story of treasure on the mountain, he approached the mountain via the Rio Volcan, making two attempts on the peak by the north-west ridge and reaching an altitude of 6,500 m. The route that he prospected is now the normal route up the mountain.</p><br>
<p>The first recorded</p><br>
<p>The east side of Aconcagua was first scaled by a Polish expedition, with Konstanty Narkiewicz-Jodko, Stefan Daszyński, Wiktor Ostrowski and Stefan Osiecki summiting on March 9, 1934, over what is now known as the Polish Glacier. A route over the Southwest Ridge was pioneered over seven days in January 1953 by the Swiss-Argentine team of Frederico and Dorly Marmillod, Francisco Ibanez and Fernando Grajales. The famously difficult South Face was conquered by a French team led by. Pierre Lesueur, Adrien Dagory, Robert Paragot, Edmond Denis, Lucien Berardini and Guy Poulet reached the summit after a month of effort on 25 February 1954.</p><br>
<p>The youngest person to reach the summit of Aconcagua was Tyler Armstrong of California. He was nine years old when he reached the summit on December 24, 2013. The oldest person to climb it was Scott Lewis, who reached the summit on November 26, 2007, when he was 87 years old.</p><br>
<p>In the base camp Plaza de Mulas (at 4300 meters above sea level) there is the highest contemporary art gallery tent called "Nautilus" of the Argentine painter Miguel Doura.</p><br>
<p>In 2014 Kilian Jornet set a record for climbing and descending Aconcagua from Horcones in 12 hours and 49 minutes. The record was broken less than two months later by Ecuadorian-Swiss Karl Egloff, in a time of 11 hours 52 minutes, nearly an hour faster than Kilian Jornet.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>The mountain has a cameo in a 1942 Disney cartoon called Pedro. The cartoon stars an anthropomorphic small airplane named Pedro who makes an air mail run over the Andes and has a near-disastrous encounter with Aconcagua (depicted in the film as an anthropomorphic menace).</p><br>
<h2>Dangers</h2><br>
<p>Aconcagua is the highest peak of South America and is also considered ‘easy’ at nearly seven thousand metres. And through that, Aconcagua is believed to have the highest death rate of any mountain in South America – around three a year – which has earned it the nickname, “Mountain of Death”. More than a hundred people have died on Aconcagua since records began.</p><br>
<p>Due to the improper disposal of human waste in the mountain environment there are significant health hazards that pose a threat to both animals and human beings. Only boiled or chemically treated water is accepted for drinking. Additionally, Ecofriendly toilets are available only to members of an organised expedition, meaning climbers have to ‘be contracted to a toilet service’ at the base camp and similar camps along the route. Currently, from two base camps (Plaza de Mulas and Plaza Angeritna), over 120 barrels of waste (approx. 22,500 kg) are flown out by helicopter each season. In addition, individual mountaineers must make a payment before using these toilets. Some large organisers will give a price up to US$100, some smaller US$5/day or US$10 for the entire stay. Thus, many independent mountaineers defecate on the mountainside.</p><br>
<p>The Rwenzori Mountains, previously called the "Ruwenzori Range" , is a mountain range of eastern equatorial Africa, located on the border between Uganda and the Democratic Republic of the Congo . These mountains support glaciers and are one source of the river Nile.</p><br>
<p>The Rwenzori Mountains reach heights up to 5,109 m. The highest Rwenzori peaks are permanently snow-capped. The Rwenzori Mountains National Park and Virunga National Park are located in the range.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The mountains formed about three million years ago in the late Pliocene epoch and are the result of an uplifted block of crystalline rocks including gneiss, amphibolite, granite and quartzite.</p><br>
<p>This uplift divided the paleolake Obweruka and created three of the present-day African Great Lakes: Lake Albert, Lake Edward, and Lake George.</p><br>
<p>The range is about 120 km long and 65 km wide. It consists of six massifs separated by deep gorges: Mount Stanley (5,109 m), Mount Speke (4,890 m), Mount Baker (4,843 m), Mount Emin (4,798 m), Mount Gessi (4,715 m) and Mount Luigi di Savoia (4,627 m). Mount Stanley has several subsidiary summits, with Margherita Peak being the highest point.</p><br>
<h2>Human history</h2><br>
<p>The mountains are occasionally identified with the legendary "Mountains of the Moon", depicted in Antiquity as the source of the Nile River.</p><br>
<p>Photographer Vittorio Sella took a number of photographs of the Rwenzori Mountains during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, documenting the retreat of the ranges glaciers. Sellas photographic work is conserved at the Museo Nazionale della Montagna in Turin and at the Istituto di Fotografia Alpina Vittorio Sella in Biella, both in Italy. The Makerere University, Uganda, also has a selection of his images.</p><br>
<p>The first traverse of the six massifs of the Rwenzori Mountains was done in 1975, starting on 27 January and ending on 13 February. The traverse was done by Polish climbers Janusz Chalecki, Stanisław Cholewa and Leszek Czarnecki, with Mirosław Kuraś accompanying them on the last half of the traverse.</p><br>
<h2>Natural history</h2><br>
<h3>Flora</h3><br>
<p>The Rwenzori Mountains are known for their vegetation, ranging from tropical rainforest through alpine meadows to snow. The range supports its own species and varieties of giant groundsel and giant lobelia and even has a 6 m tall heather covered in moss that lives on one of its peaks. Most of the range is now a World Heritage Site and is covered jointly by the Rwenzori Mountains National Park in south-western Uganda and the Virunga National Park in the eastern DRC.</p><br>
<p>There is no water shortage in the Rwenzori; yet, several members of the afroalpine family resemble species that normally thrive in desert climates. The reason lies in their similar water economy. Water is not always readily available to the afroalpine plants when they need it. In addition, nightly frosts affect the sap transport in the plants and the intake of water by its roots. As the day begins, the air temperature and radiation level rise rapidly, putting strenuous demands on the exposed parts of the plants as they try to meet the transpiration demands of the leaves and maintain a proper water balance. To counter the effects of freezing, the afroalpine plants have developed the insulation systems that give them such a striking appearance. These adaptations become more prominent as the altitude increases.</p><br>
<p>There are five overlapping vegetation zones in the Rwenzori Mountains: the evergreen forest zone (up to 2,800 m); the bamboo zone (2800 to 3300 m); the heather zone (3000 to 3800 m); the alpine zone (3500 to 4500 m); and, the nival zone (4400 to 5000 m). At higher altitudes, some plants reach an unusually large size, such as lobelia and groundsels. The vegetation in the Rwenzori Mountains is unique to equatorial alpine Africa.</p><br>
<h2>Glacial recession in Rwenzori</h2><br>
<p>An ongoing concern is the impact of climate change on Rwenzoris glaciers. In 1906, the Rwenzori had 43 named glaciers distributed over six mountains with a total area of 7.5 km&sup2, about half the total glacier area in Africa. By 2005, less than half of these were still present, on only three mountains, with an area of about 1.5 km&sup2;. Recent scientific studies, such as those by Richard Taylor of University College London, have attributed this retreat to global climate change and have investigated the impact of this change on the mountains vegetation and biodiversity.</p><br>
<p>Vinson Massif is a large mountain massif in Antarctica that is 21 km long and 13 km wide and lies within the Sentinel Range of the Ellsworth Mountains. It overlooks the Ronne Ice Shelf near the base of the Antarctic Peninsula. The massif is located about 1,200 km from the South Pole. Vinson Massif was discovered in January 1958 by USA Navy aircraft. In 1961, the Vinson Massif was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names , for Carl G. Vinson, United States congressman from the state of Georgia, for his support for Antarctic exploration. On Nov. 1, 2006, US-ACAN declared Mount Vinson and Vinson Massif to be separate entities.</p><br>
<p>Mount Vinson is the highest peak in Antarctica, at 4,892 m. It lies in the north part of Vinson Massif’s summit plateau in the south portion of the main ridge of the Sentinel Range about 2 km north of Hollister Peak. It was first climbed in 1966. An expedition in 2001 was the first to climb via the Eastern route, and also took GPS measurements of the height of the peak. As of February 2010, 1,400 climbers have attempted to reach the top of Mount Vinson.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The Vinson Massif extends between Goodge Col and Branscomb Glacier to the northwest, Nimitz Glacier and Gildea Glacier to the southwest and south, and Dater Glacier and its tributary Hinkley Glacier to the east. The southeastern part of the massif ends at Hammer Col, which joins it to the Craddock Massif, of which the highest point is Mount Rutford (4,477 m). The massif comprises both the high central Vinson Plateau with its few peaks rising to over 4,700 m, and several side ridges mostly trending southwest or northeast from the plateau.</p><br>
<p>The current height (4,892 m) of Mount Vinson was measured by a GPS survey that was conducted by the 2004 Omega Foundation team comprising Damien Gildea of Australia (leader) and Rodrigo Fica and Camilo Rada of Chile. Since 1998 and continuing through 2007, the Omega Foundation has placed a GPS receiver on the summit for a suitable period of time to obtain accurate satellite readings.</p><br>
<h2>Climate and glaciers</h2><br>
<p>The climate on Mount Vinson is generally controlled by the polar ice cap&#39;s high-pressure system, creating predominantly stable conditions but, as in any polar climate, high winds and snowfall are a possibility. Though the annual snowfall on Mount Vinson is low, high winds can cause base camp accumulations up to 46 cm in a year. During the summer season, November through January, there are 24 hours of sunlight. While the average temperature during these months is -30 &deg;C, the intense sun will melt snow on dark objects.</p><br>
<p>Over successive years, the limited amount of snow that falls on Vinson Massif compacts and is transformed into ice, forming glaciers. These glaciers follow the topography and flow down the mountain&#39;s valleys. The uppermost glacier occupies Jacobsen Valley on the north face of Mount Vinson, and flows either into Branscomb Glacier to the west or Crosswell Glacier to the east. The Crosswell Glacier flows into the Rutford Ice Stream via Ellen Glacier. The south face of Mount Vinson is drained by Roché Glacier, which flows westwards into Branscomb Glacier, with the latter leaving Vinson Massif to join Nimitz Glacier.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>A high mountain, provisionally known as Vinson, was long suspected to be in this part of West Antarctica, but it was not actually seen until January 1958, when it was spotted by US Navy aircraft from Byrd Station. It was named after Carl Vinson, United States Representative from Georgia who was a key supporter of funding for Antarctic research. The first measurement of the Vinson Massif was established in 1959 at the elevation of 5,140 m.</p><br>
<h3>First ascent</h3><br>
<p>In 1963, two groups within the American Alpine Club, one led by Charles D. Hollister and Samuel C. Silverstein, M.D., then in New York, and the other led by Peter Schoening of Seattle, Washington, began lobbying the National Science Foundation to support an expedition to climb Mount Vinson. The two groups merged in spring 1966 at the urging of the National Science Foundation and the American Alpine Club, and Nicholas Clinch was recruited by the American Alpine Club to lead the merged expeditions. Officially named the American Antarctic Mountaineering Expedition 1966/67, the expedition was sponsored by the American Alpine Club and the National Geographic Society, and supported in the field by the USA Navy and the National Science Foundation Office of Antarctic Programs. Ten scientists and mountaineers participated in AAME 1966/67. In addition to Clinch they were Barry Corbet, John Evans (University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN), Eiichi Fukushima (University of Washington, Seattle, WA), Charles Hollister, Ph.D. (Columbia University, New York, NY), William Long, Ph.D. (Alaska Methodist University, Anchorage, AK), Brian Marts, Peter Schoening, Samuel Silverstein, M.D. (Rockefeller University, New York, NY) and Richard Wahlstrom.</p><br>
<p>In the months prior to its departure for Antarctica the expedition received considerable press attention, primarily because of the reports that Woodrow Wilson Sayre was planning to fly in a Piper Apache piloted by Max Conrad, the "flying Grandfather", with four companions into the Sentinel Range to climb the Mount Vinson. Sayre had a reputation for problematic trips as a result of his unauthorized, unsuccessful, and nearly fatal attempt to climb Mount Everest from the North in 1962. His unauthorized incursion into Tibet led China to file an official protest with the USA State Department. In the end, the purported race did not materialize as Conrad had difficulties with his plane. According to press reports, he and Sayre were still in Buenos Aires on the day the first four members of AAME 1966/67 reached Mount Vinson&#39;s summit.</p><br>
<p>In December 1966 the Navy transported the expedition and its supplies from Christchurch, New Zealand to the USA base at McMurdo Sound, Antarctica, and from there in a ski-equipped C-130 Hercules to the Sentinel Range. All members of the expedition reached the summit of Mount Vinson. The first group of four climbers summited on December 18, 1966, four more on December 19, and the last three on December 20.</p><br>
<p>On August 17, 2006, from nomination by Damien Gildea of the Omega Foundation, US-ACAN approved naming the subsidiary peaks south of Mount Vinson for the AAME 1966/67 members Nicholas Clinch, Barry Corbet, Eiichi Fukushima, Charles Hollister, Brian Marts, Samuel Silverstein, Peter Schoening and Richard Wahlstrom. Other peaks in the Sentinel Range had previously been named for John Evans and William Long.</p><br>
<h3>Later ascents</h3><br>
<p>The climb of Vinson offers little technical difficulty beyond the usual hazards of travel in Antarctica, and as one of the Seven Summits, it has received much attention from well-funded climbers in recent years. Multiple guide companies offer guided expeditions to Mount Vinson, at a typical cost of around $30,000 per person, including transportation to Antarctica from Chile.</p><br>
<h3>First ascent from east side</h3><br>
<p>While the vast majority of prior climbs to the summit have used the western side of the massif from the Branscomb Glacier, the first ascent from the east side was successfully completed by an eight-person team sponsored by NOVA in January 2001. The team consisted of:</p><br>
<p>Conrad Anker – expedition leader</p><br>
<p>Jon Krakauer – mountaineer and author</p><br>
<p>Dave Hahn – mountain guide with 34 ascents, including ascents to Gardner, and Shinn.</p><br>
<p>Andrew Mclean – extreme skier</p><br>
<p>Dan Stone – glaciologist</p><br>
<p>Lisel Clark – producer</p><br>
<p>John Armstrong – cameraman</p><br>
<p>Rob Raker – assistant cameraman and sound recording</p><br>
<p>The team not only made the first ascent from the east side but also performed scientific research into snow accumulation at different elevations as well as taking the first ground based GPS reading from the summit. The GPS reading gave the elevation of the highest point in Antarctica as 16,077 ft, eclipsing the earlier established heights recorded in 1959 and 1979.</p><br>
<p>Another first was the successful aircraft landing of a Twin Otter on the Upper Dater Glacier on the eastern slopes of Mount Vinson.</p><br>
<p>NOVA named the production "Mountain of Ice", which first aired on PBS in February 2003.</p><br>
<h2>Maps</h2><br>
<p>Scale 1:250 000 topographic map. Reston, Virginia: US Geological Survey, 1988.</p><br>
<p>D. Gildea and C. Rada. Vinson Massif and the Sentinel Range. Scale 1:50 000 topographic map. Omega Foundation, 2007.</p><br>
<p>Lake Union is a freshwater lake entirely within the Seattle, Washington city limits and a major portion of the Lake Washington Ship Canal. Its easternmost point is the Ship Canal Bridge, which carries Interstate 5 over the eastern arm of the lake and separates Lake Union from Portage Bay. Lake Union is the namesake of the neighborhoods located on its east and west shores: Eastlake and Westlake, respectively. The northern shore of the lake is home to Gas Works Park. Notable features of the southern portion of the lake—collectively known as the South Lake Union district—include Lake Union Park, Museum of History & Industry , and the Center for Wooden Boats.</p><br>
<p>The George Washington Memorial "Aurora" Bridge carries State Route 99 over the western arm of Lake Union. The Aurora Bridge is so named because it carries Aurora Ave N down the western side of the lake. Lake Union&#39;s westernmost point can be considered the Fremont Cut, which is located just east of the Aurora Bridge and is spanned by the Fremont Bridge. The Fremont Bridge carries Fremont Ave N between the neighborhoods of Fremont and Queen Anne and separates Lake Union from the rest of the Lake Washington Ship Canal to the west.</p><br>
<h2>Origins</h2><br>
<p>A glacial lake, its basin was dug 12,000 years ago by the Vashon glacier, which also created Lake Washington and Seattle&#39;s Green, Bitter, and Haller Lakes.</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<p>Lake Union received its present name from Thomas Mercer, who in 1854 correctly predicted that canals would someday join Lake Washington to Puget Sound in a "union of waters." The Duwamish called it - compared it with what is now known as Lake Washington - "Small Lake" or "Little Lake" (Lushootseed: XáXu7cHoo or Ha-AH-Chu, literally "small great-amount-of-water," the diminutive form of the word used for Lake Washington). In Chinook, an intertribal trading language, it was called Tenas Chuck (“small water”).</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Three major streets are named in relation to the lake: Westlake Avenue, which runs along its western shore from Downtown to the Fremont Bridge; Eastlake Avenue, which runs along its eastern shore from Cascade to the University District, and Northlake Way, which runs along its northern shore from the University District past Gas Works Park to the edge of Fremont.</p><br>
<p>Several neighborhoods take their name from the lake: Eastlake, Westlake, Northlake, and South Lake Union.</p><br>
<h2>Industry</h2><br>
<p>Boeing began production on Lake Union in 1916. Shipyards, wharfs, and sawmills have also dotted the shore.</p><br>
<h2>Recreation</h2><br>
<p>Lake Union&#39;s proximity to and scenic views of Seattle make it a popular recreational spot. Seaplanes operated by Kenmore Air and Seattle Seaplanes land and take off from the lake throughout the day. Pleasure boats from Lake Washington pass through on their way to Puget Sound. The Center for Wooden Boats holds a yearly wooden boat festival. The world-famous Duck Dodge sailboat races are run on Lake Union each Tuesday during the summer. Rowers in sweep and sculling boats use the lake year-round. Paddle boarding and kayaking are also popular on this lake.</p><br>
<h3>Parks</h3><br>
<p>Gas Works Park is the largest park on Lake Union and the most popular for Seattleites and visitors. It is the venue for summer concerts and Seattle&#39;s major Fourth of July fireworks show. Other parks ring the lake, clockwise around the compass from Gas Works which is nearly due north: North Passage Point Park, South Passage Point Park, Fairview Park, Terry Pettus Park, and South Lake Union Park.</p><br>
<h2>Floating homes</h2><br>
<p>Floating homes line the east and west sides of Lake Union. In Sleepless in Seattle, the character played by Tom Hanks lived on one of these homes.</p><br>
<h2>Connections to other bodies of water</h2><br>
<p>Part of the Lake Washington Ship Canal system, water flows into the lake from Lake Washington through the Montlake Cut, and out via the Fremont Cut on its way to Puget Sound. Before construction of the canal, Lake Union emptied into Salmon Bay via a creek which followed roughly the same course as the Fremont Cut does today.</p><br>
<h2>Salinity</h2><br>
<p>Because of the connection via the Hiram M. Chittenden Locks to the salt water of Puget Sound, there is some saline contamination, which increases in the summer as the inflow rate from Lake Washington decreases and the locks open more frequently for pleasure craft.</p><br>
<h2>Competitive rowing</h2><br>
<p>Lake Union is home to several rowing centers, including Holy Names Academy Crew, Lake Union Crew, Lake Washington Rowing Club and Pocock Rowing Center, all members of USRowing. Also rowing out of bodies of water attached to Lake Union are the Seattle Rowing Center and the Conibear Shellhouse, serving the Washington Huskies.</p><br>
<h2>Seaplane base</h2><br>
<p>Lake Union is home to two seaplane bases: Kenmore Air Harbor Seaplane Base, and Seattle Seaplanes, located one nautical mile (1.85 km) north of the central business district of Seattle.</p><br>
<p>The Canadian Rocky Mountain Parks World Heritage Site is located in the Canadian Rockies. It consists of seven contiguous parks including four national parks:</p><br>
<p>Banff</p><br>
<p>Jasper</p><br>
<p>Kootenay</p><br>
<p>Yoho</p><br>
<p>and three British Columbia provincial parks:</p><br>
<p>Hamber Provincial Park</p><br>
<p>Mount Assiniboine Provincial Park</p><br>
<p>Mount Robson Provincial Park</p><br>
<p>The parks include mountains, glaciers, and hot springs and the headwaters of major North American river systems including:</p><br>
<p>North Saskatchewan River</p><br>
<p>Athabasca River</p><br>
<p>Columbia River</p><br>
<p>Fraser River</p><br>
<p>The area is known for its natural environment and biological diversity. It includes the Burgess Shale site, a World Heritage Site in its own right from 1980 to 1984, when it was included in the Canadian Rocky Mountain Parks WHS designation.</p><br>
<h2>World Heritage Site</h2><br>
<p>In 1983 Canada nominated Banff, Jasper, Kootenay and Yoho national parks for inclusion on the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites. UNESCO accepted this nomination in 1984 on the basis of a recommendation by IUCN. The original nomination and IUCNs recommendation drew attention to the areas "exceptional natural beauty", "habitats of rare and endangered species" and its natural landforms such as mountain peaks, glaciers, lakes, canyons, limestone caves, and the unique Burgess Shale fossils. That year the UNESCO World Heritage Committee "requested the Canadian authorities to consider adding the adjacent Provincial Parks of Mount Robson, Hamber, Mount Assiniboine and Kananskis" to the Canadian Rocky Mountain Parks site. At a 1990 meeting, "the Committee welcomed the Canadian proposal to include, in the Rocky Mountains Parks site, Mount Robson, Hamber and Assiniboine Provincial Parks, following its request at its Eighth Session in 1984." Kananaskis (renamed Peter Lougheed Provincial Park) has not been included within the Canadian Rocky Mountain Parks World Heritage site.</p><br>
<p>Pilatus  is a mountain massif overlooking Lucerne in Central Switzerland. It is composed of several peaks, of which the highest  is named Tomlishorn and is located about 1.3 km to the southeast of the top cable car and cog railway station. The two peaks right next to the stations are called Esel , which lies just east over the railway station, the one on the west side is called Oberhaupt . Jurisdiction over the massif is divided between the cantons of Obwalden , Nidwalden , and Lucerne . The main peaks are right on the border between Obwalden and Nidwalden.</p><br>
<h2>Railway and summits</h2><br>
<p>The top can be reached with the Pilatus Railway, the world&#39;s steepest cogwheel railway, from Alpnachstad, operating from May to November (depending on snow conditions), and the whole year with the aerial panorama gondolas and aerial cableways from Kriens. Both peaks next to the top stations, Esel and Oberhaupt, can easily be reached also by mass tourism.</p><br>
<p>The highest peak however, Tomlishorn, and the other peaks, such as Widderfeld (2,128 m) even further west than the Tomlishorn on the border between LU and OW, Matthorn (2,040 m) to the south, the Klimsenhorn (1,906 m) to the north (UW), and Rosegg (1,974 m) and Windegg (1,673 m) to the east, both on the border of UW and OW, should only be approached with appropriate Alpine hiking equipement.</p><br>
<p>The whole mountain range streches at least from the Lopper just opposite from Stansstad to the east as far as at least to the Mittaggüpfi (1,917 m) and the Risetestock (1,759 m) to the west on the border between LU and OW.</p><br>
<p>During the summer, the "Golden Round Trip" — a popular route for tourists — involves taking a boat from Lucerne across Lake Lucerne to Alpnachstad, going up on the cogwheel railway, coming down on the aerial cableways and panorama gondolas, and taking a bus back to Lucerne.</p><br>
<p>A few different local legends about the origin of the name exist. One claims that Pilatus was named so because Pontius Pilate was buried there; a similar legend is told of Monte Vettore in Italy. Another is that the mountain looks like the belly of a large man, Pilate, lying on his back and was thus named for him. The name may also be derived from "pileatus," meaning "cloud-topped."</p><br>
<p>Numbered amongst those who have reached its summit are Conrad Gessner, Theodore Roosevelt, Arthur Schopenhauer (1804), Queen Victoria and Julia Ward Howe (1867).</p><br>
<h2>Military installations</h2><br>
<p>The mountain has fortified radar (part of the Swiss FLORAKO system) and weather stations on the Oberhaupt summit, not open to the public view and used all year round.</p><br>
<h2>Dragon</h2><br>
<p>A medieval legend had dragons with healing powers living on the mountain. A chronicle from 1619 reads: as I was contemplating the serene sky by night, I saw a very bright dragon with flapping wings go from a cave in a great rock in the mount called Pilatus toward another cave, known as Flue, on the opposite side of the lake. This legend was the inspiration for Steven Reineke&#39;s famous concert band piece, Pilatus: Mountain of Dragons.</p><br>
<h2>Weather</h2><br>
<h2>In literature</h2><br>
<p>"The Chalet School does it again" (1955) Elinor Brent-Dyer retells the Pilate burial place legend.</p><br>
<p>Mount Pilatus plays a pivotal role in the conclusion of Brad Thor&#39;s fiction novel "Lions of Lucerne".</p><br>
<p>Fort Sam Houston is a USA Army post in San Antonio, Texas.</p><br>
<p>"Fort Sam Houston, TX • About Fort Sam Houston" (overview),</p><br>
<p>US Army, 2007, webpage:</p><br>
<p>Known colloquially as "Fort Sam," it is named for the USA Senator, Texas Governor, and first President of the Republic of Texas, Sam Houston.</p><br>
<p>The installation&#39;s missions include serving as the command headquarters for the United States Army North (formerly the Fifth United States Army), United States Army South, the Army Medical Command (MEDCOM) headquarters, the Army Medical Department (AMEDD) Center and School, the Fifth Recruiting Brigade, Navy Regional Recruiting, the San Antonio Military Entrance and Processing Station, and the Medical Education and Training Campus (METC). On October 1, 2010, Fort Sam Houston joined Lackland and Randolph Air Force Bases to create Joint Base San Antonio, under Air Force administration.</p><br>
<h2>Hosted units</h2><br>
<p>U. S. Department of Defense (DoD) Elements</p><br>
<p>U. S. Army Elements</p><br>
<p>U. S. Air Force Elements</p><br>
<h2>Senior Command</h2><br>
<p>United States Army North is the senior command and responsible for all Army activities on Fort Sam Houston, but not for the post itself. Commanded by Lt. Gen. Jeffrey S. Buchanan, Army North&#39;s primary missions are land-based Homeland Defense, Defense Support of Civil Authorities and Theater Security Cooperation with the Bahamas, Canada and Mexico. Because Fort Sam Houston is part of Joint Base San Antonio, the installation commander is the commander of the 502d Air Base Wing.</p><br>
<h2>Military medicine</h2><br>
<p>Fort Sam Houston is known as the "Home of Army Medicine" and "Home of the Combat Medic." At the end of World War II, the Army decided to make Fort Sam Houston the principal medical training facility.</p><br>
<p>"Visit Fort Sam Houston" (description),</p><br>
<p>VisitMilitaryBases.com, 2007, webpage:</p><br>
<p>In conjunction with this decision came the determination to develop Brooke General Hospital into one of the Army&#39;s premier medical centers. This combined the capabilities of Wilford Hall Medical Center located at nearby Lackland Air Force Base to create the largest medical treatment facility and teaching hospital in the Department of Defense. Construction associated with this transition increased the square footage of the hospital by 50%, including a much larger, variable capacity emergency department, additional surgical suites and recovery facilities, as well as teaching facilities and bed space. Despite the installation transitioning to Air Force control, the command and control of the facility will remain with the Army. The command and other key positions will rotate between the Army and Air Force. Staffing consist of members of both services, as well as a large number of civilians.</p><br>
<p>As of 2011, Fort Sam Houston is the largest and most important military medical training facility in the world.</p><br>
<p>"Installation Fact Sheet" (Fort Sam Houston), 2007, PDF webpage:</p><br>
<p>states: "Fort Sam Houston is the largest and most important</p><br>
<p>military medical training facility in the world."</p><br>
<p>Military Medical Training is provided by numerous elements, including METC, AMEDD Center and School, Brooke Army Medical Center, US Army Institute of Surgical Research, The Center for Battlefield Health and Trauma, Defense Medical Readiness Training Institute, as well as many smaller organizations.</p><br>
<p>Known as the brain trust for the Army Medical Department, the Army Medical Department Center and School annually trains more than 25,000 students attending 170 officer, NCO and enlisted courses in 14 medical specialties. The command maintains several academic affiliations for bachelors and masters degree programs with major universities such as Baylor University, University of Texas Health Science Centers at Houston and San Antonio, and University of Nebraska.</p><br>
<p>As a result of the Base Realignment and Closure Commission (BRAC) 2005 recommendations, all military medical training has been consolidated at Fort Sam Houston. This consolidation concluded with the opening of the Military Education and Training Campus (METC) in 2011. The Navy moved its medical training from San Diego, California; Great Lakes, Illinois; and Portsmouth, Virginia. The Air Force moved its medical training from Sheppard Air Force Base in Wichita Falls, Texas. This increased the average student load and required additional support staff. The expansion in training has required construction approaching one billion dollars, a windfall of federal investment in Texas.</p><br>
<h2>Historic buildings</h2><br>
<p>The Sundry Civil Service Bill of 3 March 1873, included a $100,000 for a new army post in San Antonio, on 93 acres of land deeded by the city on Government Hill. Edward Braden Construction Co. won the contract to build the post on 7 June 1876, for $83,900. Included on the Quadrangle was a combination 87 foot watch tower and 6,400 gallon water tank designed by General Montgomery C. Meigs, based on one he had seen in Europe, and which he called "his work of art". On 19 Feb. 1877, the new train station on Austin Street opened, connecting San Antonio to Galveston. The quartermasters soon moved their depot supplies from the Alamo to the Quadrangle, and the headquarters of the "Post at San Antonio" moved in on 22 Dec. 1879. In 1880, 15 officers quarters were designed by architect Alfred Giles, west of the Quadrangle, and bordering a parade ground, which included the Commanding Generals home, now known as the Pershing House, and first occupied by Brig. Gen. Christopher Augur. The hospital, now known as Sam Houston House, was built in 1886. Between 1885 and 1891, 60 additional buildings were built on 43 acres, Upper post or Infantry Post, purchased by the army east of the Quadrangle, including the 1893 Band Barracks overlooking another parade ground. The post was formally named Fort Sam Houston on September 11, 1890. The Gift Chapel was dedicated by President William Taft on 17–18 Oct. 1909.</p><br>
<p>Construction at Fort Sam Houston began in the middle 1870s under the supervision of the military commander of the Department of Texas, Major General Edward Ord, a West Point-trained army engineer. Today, as one of the Army&#39;s oldest installations, and with more than 900 buildings in its historic districts, Fort Sam Houston boasts one of the largest collection of historic military post structures. The significant contributions of Fort Sam Houston to the United States were recognized in 1975 when the post was designated as a National Historic Landmark.</p><br>
<p>The Fort Sam Houston Quadrangle, built by George Henry Griebel, is the oldest structure at Fort Sam Houston. It was originally a supply depot. During that time, it housed the Apache war chief Geronimo and warriors captured with him, while the Federal government decided whether to treat them as prisoners of war or common criminals. Legend has it that the deer in the Quadrangle were there because Geronimo refused to eat food he did not hunt. The deer pre-date Geronimo in the Quadrangle. It is unknown why the deer (and peacocks/penhens) were introduced into the confined courtyard of the Quadrangle.</p><br>
<p>The Quadrangle is now an office complex housing the commanding general and staff of USA Army North. The base has maintained the historical integrity of the post&#39;s different sections, which represent different eras of construction, and reflect various Army concepts in planning and design. Careful preservation of these areas allows the post to live with its history, surrounded by the traditions established when the first soldier arrived here in 1845.</p><br>
<p>Pershing House, home of the base commandant, was designed by the architect Alfred Giles and constructed in 1881.</p><br>
<p>During World War II space at the fort was made available for up to 1,000 German POWs. This took place on 15 Sept. 1942 while POW camps could be built.</p><br>
<h2>Notable postings</h2><br>
<p>Several famous figures have served at the fort, including Arthur MacArthur, Jr., Leonard Wood, Benjamin Foulois, Frederick Funston, and John J. Pershing. Maj. Gen. John Wilson Ruckman, Commander of the Southern Department, was based at Fort Sam just after the Houston Riot of 1917. Brig. Gen. Billy Mitchell was posted there after being demoted to colonel for disobeying orders. Dwight D. Eisenhower was posted to Fort Sam Houston twice during his career, as was Walter Krueger. During Eisenhower&#39;s first posting from 1915 to 1917, he met and married Mamie Doud. He was posted at the fort when the attack on Pearl Harbor occurred in 1941. Their first home is one of the buildings preserved as an historic monument. Gen. Wainwright took command of the Fourth United States Army here in 1946.</p><br>
<h2>Community connections</h2><br>
<p>Throughout its existence, a close and harmonious relationship has prevailed between Fort Sam Houston and the City of San Antonio. The two have grown and matured together. The city often has been called the "mother-in-law of the Army" because so many soldiers including Dwight D. Eisenhower, met their future spouses there. After the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, in 2003 the Army decided to close New Braunfels Avenue to through traffic. Until the 2003 closure, New Braunfels had been a major north-south thoroughfare used by soldiers and San Antonio citizens alike; this had the result of closing many businesses near the north and south entrances from New Braunfels Avenue.</p><br>
<p>More than 27,000 military and civilian personnel work at the post, with an annual payroll and operating budget of $1.9 billion. Local purchases made by installation activities total almost $105 million annually. Funding for construction projects on post average $30 million annually. Fort Sam Houston has also initiated public–private partnerships to renovate and adaptively reuse significant historic buildings.</p><br>
<p>In June 2006, the San Antonio Express-News reported that Fort Sam Houston received utility disconnection notices due to budget constraints.</p><br>
<p>Fort Sam Houston is one of three military facilities in Texas (all in the San Antonio area) to have its own school district, the Fort Sam Houston Independent School District.</p><br>
<p>The United States Postal Service operates the Fort Sam Houston Post Office at 1804 Stanley Road.</p><br>
<p>New Hebrides, officially the New Hebrides Condominium  and named for the Hebrides Scottish archipelago, was the colonial name for the island group in the South Pacific Ocean that now is the nation of Vanuatu. Native people had inhabited the islands for three thousand years before the first Europeans arrived in 1606 from a Spanish expedition led by Pedro Fernandes de Queirós. The islands were colonised by both the British and French in the 18th century, shortly after Captain James Cook visited the islands.</p><br>
<p>The two countries eventually signed an agreement making the islands an Anglo-French condominium, which divided the New Hebrides into two separate communities: one Anglophone and one Francophone. This divide continues even after independence, with schools teaching in either one language or the other, and with different political parties. The condominium lasted from 1906 until 1980, when the New Hebrides gained their independence as the Republic of Vanuatu.</p><br>
<h2>Politics and economy</h2><br>
<p>The New Hebrides was a rare form of colonial territory in which sovereignty was shared by two powers, Britain and France, instead of just one. Under the Condominium there were three separate governments – one French, one British, and one joint administration that was partially elected after 1975.</p><br>
<p>The French and British governments were called residencies, each headed by a resident appointed by the metropolitan government. The residency structure greatly emphasised dualism, with both consisting of an equal number of French and British representatives, bureaucrats and administrators. Every member of one residency always had an exact mirror opposite number on the other side who they could consult. The symmetry between the two residencies was almost exact.</p><br>
<p>The joint government consisted of both local and European officials. It had jurisdiction over the postal service, public radio station, public works, infrastructure, and censuses, among other things. The two main cities of Luganville and Port Vila also had city councils, but these did not have a great deal of authority.</p><br>
<p>While initial settlers were predominantly British living in Australia, the late 19th century saw an influx of French. Within a few decades, there were twice as many French on the islands as there were British, prompting a multitude of petitions to cede power to either the French or the British. Despite this, the two nations came together to form a condominium, a specialised form government where both nations would have all of their own administrations and jointly rule the islands. The only place they came together was in the Joint Court. As Mander describes, "The Joint Court was the key to the situation and much was to depend upon it….Three judges–one British, one French, and the third nominated by the King of Spain–were to comprise the court." This meant convictions in court were chosen based on either British or French law, depending on the circumstances.</p><br>
<p>Other than the Joint Court, everything existed in pairs. "Cynics called the Condominium the Pandemonium, as the dual administration produced amazing duplication. There were two police forces with their own laws, including road laws, two health services, two education systems, two currencies, and two prison systems." Additionally, there were separate British and French governments, which meant two immigration policies, two courts (outside of the Joint Court), two corporation laws, and inhabitants of the islands were given the choice as to which government they wanted to go under. For instance, if you were convicted, you could choose whether to be convicted under British or French law. As Miles put it, "The result was an inevitable clash of foreign policy and colonial mentality."</p><br>
<p>The Condominium was not beneficial for Ni-Vanuatus, as they were "...officially stateless. To travel abroad, they needed an identifying document signed by both the British and the French resident commissioners." Inevitably, this led to revolt across the islands, with a multitude of revolutionary groups forming to attempt to create agency and self-government for themselves. It wasn&#39;t until 1980 that Vanuatu gained independence and dropped the nomenclature of the New Hebrides.</p><br>
<p>Local people could choose whether to be tried under the British common law or the French civil law. Visitors could choose which immigration rules to enter under. Nationals of one country could set up corporations under the laws of the other. In addition to these two legal systems, a third Native Court existed to handle cases involving Melanesian customary law. There was also a Joint Court, composed of British and French judges. The President of the Joint Court was appointed by the King of Spain until 1939 when the post was abolished after the retirement of the last President, partly due to the abolition of the Spanish monarchy in 1931.</p><br>
<p>There were two prison systems to complement the two court systems. The police force was technically unified but consisted of two chiefs and two equal groups of officers wearing two different uniforms. Each group alternated duties and assignments.</p><br>
<p>Language was a serious barrier to the operation of this naturally inefficient system, as all documents had to be translated once to be understood by one side, then the response translated again to be understood by the other, though Bislama creole represented an informal bridge between the British and the French camps.</p><br>
<p>The Lodge is the primary official residence of the Prime Minister of Australia, and is situated in the national capital, Canberra. It is located at 5 Adelaide Avenue, Deakin. It is one of two official prime ministerial residences, the secondary official residence being Kirribilli House in Sydney.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Lodge is a 40-room Georgian revival style mansion, located on 18,000 square metres (4.4 acres) of landscaped grounds. The origin of its name is unknown. It was built as a temporary measure, to be occupied by whoever was the Prime Minister "until such time as a monumental Prime Ministers residence is constructed, and thereafter to be used for other purposes". The original "Prime Ministers cottage" was built in 1926–1927 at a base cost of £25,000 and an eventual total of "£28,319, including the landscaping of 2.8 hectares of grounds, construction of a tennis court and croquet lawn, and furnishing and interior decoration". The architects were Percy A. Oakley and Stanley T. Parkes of Melbourne; the builder was J. G. Taylor of Sydney. Ruth Lane Poole of Melbourne was responsible for interior design and furnishing, as she had been for the Governor-General&#39;s residence, Government House. The Lodge was intended as one of a set of three official residences, the others to be for the presiding officers of the Parliament of Australia (the Speaker of the House of Representatives and the President of the Senate), but the others were never built.</p><br>
<p>The first Prime Minister to live in The Lodge was Stanley Bruce. He and his wife Ethel (they had no children) moved in on 4 May 1927, five days before the official opening of the then Parliament House on 9 May. When he was Leader of the Opposition, Bruce&#39;s successor James Scullin (1929–32) had objected to the cost of running The Lodge and, true to his word, he and his wife lived at the Hotel Canberra (now the Hyatt Hotel) during his premiership. However the next Prime Minister, Joseph Lyons, chose The Lodge, and all subsequent Prime Ministers have used it as their primary place of residence, except for:</p><br>
<p>Ben Chifley (1945–49), who preferred the Hotel Kurrajong, where many Labor politicians of the era stayed.</p><br>
<p>John Howard (1996–2007), who stayed at The Lodge when he was in Canberra for parliamentary or government business, but lived primarily at Kirribilli House, Sydney. The latter is a residence maintained for the official use of Prime Ministers when they need to perform official duties and extend official hospitality in Sydney.</p><br>
<p>Tony Abbott, who served as Prime Minister while The Lodge was being renovated. Abbott resided at an apartment at the Australian Federal Police training college when in Canberra.</p><br>
<p>When Julia Gillard became Prime Minister on 24 June 2010 after the parliamentary Labor Party decided to replace Kevin Rudd as leader, she declared that she would not move into The Lodge until she had "fulsomely earned the trust of the Australian people to be prime minister" at an election; instead, she remained living in her home in Altona in Melbourne and her flat in Canberra. Following the 2010 election at which Gillard led her party into minority government, she moved into The Lodge on 26 September 2010.</p><br>
<p>Of the three Australian Prime Ministers who have died in office, the only one to die at The Lodge was John Curtin in 1945.</p><br>
<h2>Renovations</h2><br>
<p>The buildings interior has an American Colonial character, with stained wall panelling and exposed upper-floor beams under the ceiling. The ground-floor entrance opens into an entrance hall. To the left of the entrance is the dining room and service wing, which includes staff quarters. To its right are the formal reception rooms—a drawing room, study, and sitting room/library (which was originally intended as a billiards room). The staircase rises to a landing which contains office space for the prime ministers spouse, then divides into two flights, leading to a hall opening onto a loggia above the entrance. On the first floor are the private apartments and guest accommodation, consisting of a study, six bedrooms, sitting room, a drawing room, and a billiards/games room.</p><br>
<h3>Menzies, 1939</h3><br>
<p>When Robert Menzies wife Pattie Menzies supervised a major refurbishment. The makeshift childrens bedrooms on the front balcony, built for the large Lyons family, were removed. Worn carpets and furnishings were replaced and kerosene heaters installed.</p><br>
<h3>Holt, 1966</h3><br>
<p>Harold Holt&#39;s wife Zara Holt also organised a major makeover. All the curtains and carpets were discarded. The floors were re-covered with a dramatic emerald green carpet. The tall, arched windows of the entrance were draped with crisp white curtains. A flagpole flying the Australian flag was installed on the stair landing. Most controversial of all was the extensive work needed to transform the dark varnished Tasmanian mountain ash panelling of the walls of all three rooms. Once the stripping was completed, the walls were coated with a white gloss paint. These bright walls remained the backdrop of formal photographs at The Lodge for the next five prime ministers.</p><br>
<h3>Gorton, 1968</h3><br>
<p>John Gortons wife Bettina had practical skills in farm repairs which were soon called on to deal with maintenance issues resulting from some of Zara Holts decorating shortcomings. Repairs to a leaking ceiling that threatened the silk wallpaper in the Swan Suite, and toning down some of the more vibrant colours in furnishings and finishes, were among the tasks she undertook. But Bettina Gortons lasting imprint on The Lodge was in the grounds. During the Gortons tenure, a wall was built surrounding The Lodge, both as a security measure and to give some privacy from the encroaching traffic of Adelaide Avenue on the eastern side of the residence. Once the wall was completed, Bettina Gorton developed a garden of Australian native plants. The Gortons also installed a swimming pool and a courtyard in the north-east corner of the grounds.</p><br>
<h3>Fraser, 1977-78</h3><br>
<p>Major work was carried out in 1977–78 to upgrade the kitchen and staff quarters and to extend the main dining room. The Frasers found the house drab and unwelcoming. The once-glamorous wallpaper was peeling from the guestroom ceiling, and numerous cracks had appeared in the bathroom walls. Tamie Fraser thought the layout of the house was inefficient, the service area inadequate and, like every occupant since 1927, found the dining room too small for adequate official entertaining. Among the visitors entertained at The Lodge by the Frasers were the Prince of Wales, and then the Queen and the Duke of Edinburgh in 1977.</p><br>
<p>The first task Tamie Fraser undertook was to supplement the surviving settings of the 1927 white and gold Royal Doulton dinner service. It had a special pattern that had been designed by Ruth Lane Poole in 1926 featuring the prime-ministerial monogram (consisting of the interwoven letters P and M), which also appears carved into the backs of the dining-room chairs. Interestingly, the man who handled Tamie Frasers order in 1977 had arranged for the manufacture of the original set fifty years earlier. Though this expensive purchase created a furore, it did not deter Tamie Fraser from battling to secure major renovations of the service wing and dining room in 1978. She chose architect Guilford Bell to oversee this remodelling and to redecorate the main reception rooms to classic colours and style&#39;, with cream-painted walls and a white Berber carpet.</p><br>
<h3>Hawke, 1987</h3><br>
<p>The most notable feature of the work done by Hawkes wife Hazel during her eight years at The Lodge was her sympathetic restoration of the buildings interior. She also supported The Australiana Fund, started by Tamie Fraser, which used donations to collect Australian art and furniture for the four official residences – Government House and The Lodge in Canberra, and Admiralty House and Kirribilli House in Sydney. Hazel Hawke found and arranged restoration of The Lodge&#39;s original Australian-made Beale Piano. The piano, chosen for The Lodge by Ruth Lane Poole to fit the original designs for the drawing room, had been used in the Canberra School of Music as a practice piano after its removal from The Lodge. Mrs Hawke also fitted out a room on the mezzanine landing of The Lodge as her office, which she remembered as her favourite room in which she spent most of her time.</p><br>
<h3>Keating, 1991</h3><br>
<p>The Keatings made some changes to the furnishings, moving a massive William Rojo bookcase provided by the Australiana Fund into storage and providing the Brown Room with new sofas. Unlike many of the earlier prime-ministerial families, the Keatings preferred to treat The Lodge as a family home and did not often entertain official visitors there.</p><br>
<h3>Howard, 1996</h3><br>
<p>Although the Howards chose to reside at Kirribilli House in Sydney, they used The Lodge for official purposes and made significant improvements. From 2000 to 2005, the reception areas of the residence were progressively refurbished with the assistance of interior designer Mary Durack. The two main reception rooms, the Morning Room and the Drawing Room, were redecorated in a complementary theme rather than as two distinctive areas, as was previously the case. The dining room and the foyer were also refurbished.</p><br>
<h3>Major refurbishment, 2011–2015</h3><br>
<p>Howard&#39;s successor in 2007, Kevin Rudd, returned to tradition by living at The Lodge, as did his successor Julia Gillard.</p><br>
<p>In October 2011 the Department of Finance and Deregulation had announced an intended 18-month repair and refurbishment project, involving roofing, insulation, guttering, plumbing, removal of hazardous material, heating and cooling, electrical rewiring, and replacement of the Australian Federal Police guard houses. "As these works have progressed, other works that could be undertaken to further improve the security, safety and functionality of the residence have been identified, and it is more efficient to complete these works while a major project is underway". In an interview with ABC News, Special Minister of State Gary Gray said the total cost would run into the millions of dollars. The original estimate of $3.19 million was rapidly exceeded and, had been revised to $8.8 million.</p><br>
<p>In 2013, after Kevin Rudd replaced Julia Gillard as PM, he led Labor to the 2013 federal election which resulted in Coalition leader Tony Abbott becoming Prime Minister. Pending the completion of the renovations, Abbott chose to reside at Kirribilli House in Sydney and the Australian Federal Police College when he was in the capital. The renovations were not completed before Abbott&#39;s term as Prime Minister ended, and as such he never had the opportunity to reside at The Lodge. Prime Minister Malcolm Turnbull and his wife Lucy Turnbull moved into The Lodge in January 2016.</p><br>
<h2>Security</h2><br>
<p>The Lodge is highly secure. The residence has many security features in protecting the Prime Minister and his or her family, including the use of many security cameras, biometric security, high fences, shatterproof windows, and a safe room.</p><br>
